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FARM WINDBREAKS AND 



SHELTER-BELTS 



THEIR FORMATION AND CARE. 



BY 
SAMUEL B. GREEN, 

Professor of Horticulture and Forestry in the University of Minne- 
sota; Author of Amateur Fruit Growing, Vegetable Gardening, 
Forestry in Minnesota, Principles of American Forestry, etc. 



Published by 
WEBB PUBLISHING CO. 
St. Paul, Minn. 
1906. 

Copyrig-ht, ir.Oi;, by Samuel B. Green. 



LIBRARY otCONGStSS 
One Copy RKCrivcd 

AUG 6J906 

Ci.u#ii«m tony 
COPY 8. ' 






PREFACE. 

This little book on ''Farm Wind-breaks and Shelter- 
belts" is prepared in response to a call for a simple man- 
ual on this subject adapted to our western conditions. 
It is made up largely from matter that has appeared in 
articles that I have written at various times for my 
classes in the school and college of Agriculture. 
SAMUEL B. GREEN, 

College of Agriculture, 
April 25, 1906. University of Minnesota. 



FARM WIND-BREAKS AND SHELTER- 
BELTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

PRAIRIE PLANTING. 

Whatever the ulterior object of prairie planting, the sub- 
ject of protection to the buildings, their occupants and the cat- 
tle m the field should always be first considered. Our crops 
m this section are most liable to injury from the southwest 
wind of the summer, which dries them out, and the northwest 
wind of winter, which blows the snow from the land caus- 
ing It to lose the snow water. It also causes a loss of evapora- 
tion, which goes on even in winter from the bare ground and 
from exposed crops, causing them to winter-kill. The same 
winds are also the most uncomfortable to the occupants of 
farm buildings, and are most likely to cause dust storms, 
which should be especially guarded against. 

Windbreak is a general name given to anything that gives 
protection from the wind. On the prairies it is often applied 
to a single row of trees planted for protection. 

Shelterbelt is a term often used to signify several or a 
large number of rows of trees, but the term is often used inter- 
changeably with windbreak. 

Grove is a term that refers to comparatively large bodies 
of trees which may be planted for shelter, fuel or other pur- 
poses. 

Protection to Buildings may be furnished by a few rows or 
a grove of trees. It is generally best to locate the buildings 
m a grove, or grow one up around them, so that protection 
may be afforded from every quarter to the best advantage 
The garden should also be included in the grove or shelterbelt 
about the buildings. 

Distance of the Trees from the Buildings and Roadways. 
Of whatever the protection consists, it should not be close 



2 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

to the buildings or to any paths which are used in winter, for 
the snow drifts which always form to the leeward of such pro- 
tection may become a great nuisance under such circumstan- 
ces during winters of great snowfall. The windbreak had bet- 
ter be placed about one hundred feet back from the buildings, 
and if shade is wanted it can be obtained from scattered trees 
near the buildings, which will not drift the snow. The same 
rule applies to the planting of trees on the north side of a 
roadway. The drifts of snow which would be formed to the 
leeward of a windbreak so planted would take longer to thaw 
in the spring, and would keep the road muddy and in poor 
condition after those that were not protected had become dry 
and firm. A row of trees is very appropriate by the side of a 
street or roadway and affords a pleasant shade, and if not 
planted too closely together will not drift the snow sufficiently 
to be an objection. 

Protection to Crops by Windbreaks. The objection to 
windbreaks close to driveways may also be made against their 
use in fields, for they often keep the land for a short distance 
to leeward wet and in unfit condition to work after the rest 
of the field has become dry. This is an objection where spring 
grains are grown, but to winter grains it is an advantage. On 
the other hand, the protection of a windbreak may give a 
much needed or beneficial covering of snow to crops on the 
leeward side. The protection from dust storms and drying 
winds has already been mentioned. The important question 
is how to get the advantages without the disadvantages. In 
many sections the disadvantage of having snow linger on the 
field near the windbreak m-ay be overcome by leaving a strip 
of land near it in permanent meadow, or use it for a rotation 
that does not take in crops that require very early planting. 
But even with spring-planted grains it is more than probable 
that windbreaks properly planted are an advantage when 
their benefits are considered for a series of years. It 
ofttimes happens that low windbreaks are more beneficial than 
high windbreaks in holding the snow on the land, for the high 
windbreaks often form. a great drift that may remain late in 
the spring, while the low windbreak nowhere forms a largo 
drift, but spreads the snow for long distances. Professor 
Budd says that in parts of the great continental plain of Rus- 
sia, where the climatic changes are much the same as in this 



PRAIRIE PLANTING. 3 

section, the use of low windbreaks in wheat fields is very 
common. * 

Height of Windbreak. From the preceding paragraph it 
will be seen that low windbreaks may often serve a better 
purpose than high ones in protectiftg fields. Exactly what is 
meant by a low v/indbreak may be an open question, but for 
the purposes of this discussion a low windbreak may be con- 
sidered one under twenty feet in height. In Russia and at the 
experiment station at Indian Head, Manitoba, windbreaks of 
Artemisia toboiksiana, which seldom grows more than eight 
feet high, are often used. About farm buildings windbreaks 
cannot be too high, and for this purpose the largest, longest- 
lived trees should be used. 

Kinds of Trees for a Windbreak. In too many instances 
too many tree planters on the prairies have put out exclusive- 
ly quick-growing, short-lived trees, such as the Cottonwood 
and Lombardy Poplar, and after fifteen or twenty years they 
have found their trees dying and nothing coming on to take 
their places. The quick-growing kinds are very desirable as 
a protection for the near future, but they are often short lived 
and should never be planted alone. Among them should be 
planted a suflicient number of long-lived and perhaps slower- 
growing kinds, to afford protection in later years, when the 
short-lived kinds have died out. The soil and location have 
much to do in determining the longevity of varieties; for in- 
stance, the Cottonwood and Lombardy Poplar are generally 
short-lived trees when planted in this section, but when plant- 
ed in locations where their roots reach the permanent water 
level their period of life may be considerably lengthened, and 
they may then even be regarded as long-lived trees. 

In starting a grove or windbreak on the prairie in this 
section, there is probably no better tree to begin with than 
the White Willow. It is quick-growing, rather long-lived in 
most situations, makes good summer fuel and renews itself 
very rapidly from the stump. The Green Ash would probably 
rank next as a pioneer tree. The White Elm is also very 
valuable for this purpose, but generally should follow the 
White Willow. The Cottonwood may sometimes, though very 
seldom, be the best to use, but on average prairie land it 
would be better if the White Willow or Green Ash were al- 
ways planted instead. 



4 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

After a good windbreak has been secured it is safe to 
plant out the hardy coniferous evergreens and such trees as 
the Mountain Ash, European White Birch and other similar 
ornamental trees. Wind protection is beneficial to all trees 
and necessary for many of our best ornamental kinds and 
often makes the difference between success and failure in 
growing them. 

Distance Apart. In the planting of groves we should aim 
to get the land shaded by the trees as soon as practicable, and 
to keep it covered with a canopy of leaves. The United 
States gevernment recommended the planting of trees four 
feet apart each way, with the idea that when so planted they 
would quickly shade the ground and consequently keep out 
grass and retard evaporation. Some successful plantings have 
been made on this plan, but when planted so closely together 
the branches grow into the rows after a few years and cultiva- 
tion must be discontinued. In this section, where we have 
so much very bright, sunshiny weather that grass can grow 
under foliage that would kill it out in a more humid climate, 
we find that trees planted four feet apart each way seldom 
afford sufficient shade to kill the grass under them for many 
years. This is especially true of such trees as the Cotton- 
wood, Lombardy Poplar and White Elm when planted alone, 
as they have open foliage that does not furnish a dense shade. 
Among tree planters who have had a large experience in 
prairie planting, there has been a tendency of late years to 
plant two feet apart in rows eight feet apart, and some of our 
most successful planters prefer even more room than this be- 
tween the rows. When plantings are made 2x8 feet the same 
num-ber of trees are required for an acre as when planted 4x4 
feet, but the former distance has the advantage over the lat- 
ter in that the space between the rows can be cultivated for 
perhaps ten years or more, by which time most trees will 
have formed a dense shade and be able to take care of them- 
selves. Where a much greater distance than eight feet is 
allowed between the rows we generally fail to get forest con- 
ditions for many years, and to that extent fall short of an im- 
portant requisite in prairie planting. The distances given 
here might need to be modified to suit different varieties and 
local climatic conditions. 

Clear Plantings. Most of the plantings on our prairies 



PRAIRIE PLANTING. 



consist wholly of one kind. In some cases good results ar.e 
thus obtained, but they are seldom as satisfactory as plantings 
made up of several different kinds. One of the greatest draw- 
backs to plantings made up entirely of one kind is the fact 
that drouth, insects or fungous disease ifiay destroy the whole 
planting at one time, while in a judiciously mixed planting 
this could hardly occur. 

Mixed Plantings, when properly made, have the following 
advantages: (1) They make possible the growing of species 
that form a protection in the least possible time, and still 
have coming on in the came grove longer-lived and better 
kinds to take their places. (2) Many kinds that are some- 




Fig 1. A good tree claim in Minnesota near the Dakota line. 
Located on high prairie. Soil very dry. 

what tender are helped very much by being grown among the 
hardier kinds until well established. In this case the protect- 
ing trees are called nurse trees. The Scotch Pine is seldom a 
success when standing alone on our Western prairies, but when 
partially protected by some deciduous tree it stands very well. 
The sam.e is generally true of Hard Maple in this section and 
of Catalpa and Bl^.ck Walnut in Southern Minnesota. (3) In 
good mixed plantings the ground is more likely to be properly 
shaded and protected from winds than it would be in clear 



6 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

plantings of such thinly-leafed species as the Cottonwood or 
White Elm, which do well and afford good shade when mixed 
with Green Ash or Boxelder. (4) Mixed plantings are most 
interesting and ornamental. (5) They attract more birds 
by their better protection and the greater variety of food of- 
fered. (6) While the chance of injury to some oif the species 
by climatic changes, diseases and insects is increased, the 
possibility of total loss from any or all of these causes is re- 
duced to the minimum. 

The Most Important Constituent of a Prairie Grove of 
mixed trees in this section should be some well-known dura- 
ble kind, as the Elm, Ash or Boxelder, of which there should 
be a sufficient number to completely shade the ground when 
the others are gone. On the outside, especially on the north 
and west, it is often a good plan to put at least a few rows of 
White Willow or possibly Cottonwood to furnish a quick pro- 
tection. The rest of the grove should consist of hardy sorts, 
and may include some of the evergreens and such fruit-bearing 
trees or shrubs as the Wild Plum, Wild Black Cherry, Russian 
Mulberry and Juneberry. These latter furnish food for the 
birds and may often be a help in supplying the home table. 
The plan of planting with a view of providing some food for 
birds is not mere sentiment, for they protect our gardens from 
many insects, and if we furnish an abundance of Russian Mul- 
berry they will not trespass much on our strawberries or rasp- 
berries. It is the author's opinion that in all our prairie plant- 
ing we should pay more attention to using our native fruits 
and Russian Mulberry as plants of secondary importance. 

List of Trees for Mixed Plantings. Some suggestions 
may be found in the following lists, but several other trees 
might often be used to give a varety or a tasteful display. 

For Porous, Moist Soils in Southern Minnesota and Simi- 
lar Situations Elsewhere. White Elm, Black Walnut, Green 
Ash and Hard Maple in equal quantities with a scattering of 
the fruit plants. The Hackberry may wholly or in part take 
the place of the White Elm, and the Boxelder the place of 
the Green Ash. The White Willow, Basswood and Soft Maple 
would also do well in such a location. One of the main kinds 
might be replaced by the White or Norway Spruce, Douglas 
Fir or White Pine. In fact such land as this will grow any 
of the trees adapted to this section. 



PRAIRIE PLANTING. 7 

For High Prairie Soiig in Southern iViinnesota and Simi- 
lar Situations Elsewhere. Green Ash, Boxelder, White Elm 
and White Willow in equal quantities, wich scattering of fruit 
plants. Basswood might be used to^a limited extent, and 
White Spruce, Red Cedar, Norway Pine, White Pine or Scotch 
Pine might be used in the place of one of the main kinds. 

For IVIoist, Porous Prairie Soils in Northern IViinnesota 
and Similar Situations Elsewhere. White Willow, White Elm, 
Boxelder, Basswood and Green Ash in equal quantities, with a 
scattering of fruit plants. In some localities it might be best 
to use Cottonwood on the outside of the grove. Hackberry 
might take the place of part of the White Elm and White 
Spruce. Arborvitae, Norway Pine, Red Cedar, and some other 
conifers might be used to a limited extent. 

For High Prairie Soils in Northern Minnesota and Simi- 
lar Situations Elsewhere. Cottonwood, White Willow, Boxel- 
der and White Elm in equal quantities, with a scattering of 
fruit plants. White Spruce and native Red Cedar might also 
be used in a small way. 

Lists of trees commonly planted, arranged in the order of 
their hardiness: Deciduous trees — Green Ash, White Willow, 
White Elm, Boxelder, Bassv/ood, White Poplar, Hackberry, 
Soft Maple, Canoe Birch and Yellow Locust. Evergreen trees 
— Red Cedar, Dwarf Mountain Pine, Jack Pine, Bull Pine, 
White Spruce, Austrian Pine. Scotch Pine, Douglas Spruce, 
Norway Pine, Norway Spruce and White Pine. 

Size of Trees. In the case of deciduous trees it is general- 
ly best to start with one year old thrifty seedlings, although 
trees two years old may often be used to advantage. The 
Oak, Walnut and similar trees are better started from seeds 
where they are to remain, and the White Willow should be 
started from cuttings. Seedling Elm, Ash and Cottonwood may 
often be pulled from some river bank or lake shore, or 
bought of nursery men at a very low figure, or they may be 
raised from the seeds. White Willow cuttings can generally 
be obtained from some neighbor or from nurseries. In the 
case of conifers, transplanted seedlings should be used. What- 
ever the source of any stock that is to be planted, it should be 
thrifty and vigorous and not weak or diseased. 

Methods of Planting. The methods used in prairie plant- 
ing are much the same as for transplanting in the nursery. 



8 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

In every case much pains should be taken to have the soil 
in the best condition. It is generally better to delay planting 
for a year than to attempt it in poorly prepared soil. Tree 
plantings have been made on our prairies by sowing tree seeds 
broadcast in autumn after first carefully preparing the soil, 
but the plan is seldom successful. A start can, however, be 
made from seeds by planting the seeds in hills either alone 
or with corn or beans. In the latter case the tree seedlings 
often do very well and do not interfere with the growth of 
the crop. The seedlings are cultivated in the spring after 
the crop is removed and as they are in rows this is a very sim- 
ple matter. The common and generally most successful plan 
with trees that can be easily transplanted is to start with seed- 
lings and plant in rows. The simplest and easiest way of do- 
ing this is to furrow one way, mark out the other way and 
plant the trees in the furrows at the intersections. If Black 
Walnut or any of the oaks are wanted in a mixed planting it 
is generally best to plant the other species first and put in the 
nuts or acorns afterwards. Where it is desirable to plant 
seedlings or cuttings to fill vacancies, a pointed stick or spade 
may be used to make the hole. Whatever method is used 
in planting, it is most important that the soil be packed firm- 
ly around the roots, so they will not dry out. If the soil is 
dry it cannot be made too solid around the roots. If cuttings 
are used they should be made about 14 inches long, and in 
planting be pushed into the loose soil in a slanting position, 
leaving only one bud above the surface, as recommended 
in the planting of cuttings. 

Cultivation should be commenced shortly after planting 
and be repeated often enough to keep the top three inches of 
soil loose, so as to form a dust blanket to retard evaporation 
during dry weather. The soil should never be allowed to be- 
come baked hard after a rain, but the crust should be broken 
up with a horse cultivator as soon after a rain as it can be 
worked. Cultivation should be discontinued after the first of 
August, in order to encourage early ripening of the wood. The 
weeds that grow after this time of year will do no harm. 

One of the best tools for early cultivation of small seed- 
lings is Breed's Weeder, which may be worked both ways and 
cleans out the weeds to perfection. The ordinary corn cultiva- 
tor is also a good implement for this purpose. Later cultiva- 



PRAIRIE PLANTING. 9 

tio'n should consist of working the soil with a one-horse cul- 
tivator or plow. If the horse implements are properly used 
there will be no necessity of hand hoeing, for the few weeds 
that grow in the rows of trees will do iio injury to them. 
Some planters sow oats among the young trees for protection 
when cultivation ceases, but if field mice are abundant it may 
be best not to do so. Late in autumn of the first year or two 
after planting some soil should be turned towards the trees 
with a plow, to protect them. 

Thinning. In growing prairie groves we should always 
aim to have the tops of the trees just touch one another with- 
out serious crowding, but still have the soil shaded and pro- 
tected from wind. In order to bring this about, the grove 
must be thinned occasionally, for although the trees would 
thin themselves if left alone, it would be at the expense of 
growth and perhaps cause serious injury. Trees that are 
crowded together may suffer more from drouth than those that 
have plenty of room for their roots. This is especially true of 
tender trees on dry land. If the trees begin to crowd one an- 
other the poorest should be removed, but this should be done 
carefully and never to such an extent as to let in the sunlight, 
which would encourage the growth of grass, weeds and side 
branches. Thinning may be done at any time, but if the wood 
taken out is to be used for fence posts or poles it would be 
better to cut in winter and peel at once to aid in curing. 

The Blowing Out of Small Seedlings planted in prairie 
soil is not uncommon where they are in very exposed situa- 
tions. The movement of the young seedlings by the wind 
keeps the soil loose around them, which the severe winds 
blow away. Occasionally by such means tho roots may be left 
three or four inches out of ground the first season. In such 
very severe locations it is often a good plan to mulch the soil 
with straw or similar material until the seedlings are well 
established, after which they may be cultivated, or the mulch- 
ing process may be continued until they will take care of 
themselves. 

The Proper Location of the Buildings on a Farm is a very 
important matter and seldom receives the attfention which its 
importance demands. The position of the buildings deter- 
mines the location of the drives and of the shelterbelts if 
any are to be planted. There are factors which should 



10 



FARM WIND-BREAKS. 



enter into the study of this question, among the first of which 
is the lay of the land. Good drainage and good water are the 
first requisites for the location of a home, after which como 
convenience and beauty. It is very desirable that the first 
location be made just right, since when other improvements 
and buildings have been commenced it can seldom be changed 
without m.uch extra expense. In the case of most of our 
farms the subject of plans is conspicuous by its absence, as 

North 




South 
_ Fig-. 2. Suggestion for laying out the gi^ounds about the 
buildings on prairie farms, showing arrangements adapted to ' ai 
highway located on four different sides. Size 30x.37 rods, enclosing 
five acres, exclusive of shelterbelt on north and west sides five rods 
wide. Rows of trees indicated. See figure (3) for further details 
and suggestions. 

small cramped grounds about inconveniently arranged build- 
ings bear abundant evidence. 

In figure 2 is shown four plans suggestive of the proper 
location of the shelter belts about farm buildings located on 



PI^AIRIE PLANTING 



11 



level prairies, and varying actording to the location of the 
main highway. Five acres in the form of a rectangle, 25 rods 
wide and 32 rods long, are included in the land about the build- 
ings, and this has a shelter belt five rods Avide on the north 
and west sides, and the south side two rows of trees ten feet 
apart, with the trees one rod apart in the rows. Within this 
enclosure are all the farm buildings, orchard, fruit and vege- 
table garden, barn-yards, etc. The house should be within 
100 feet of the road, and the stock buildings at least 100 feet 
from the house and garden. About the buildings and garden 
some supplementary windbreaks and ornamental trees and 
shrubs will be needed for wind protection and for beautifying 
the place. This arrangement gives plenty of room for the 



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V ,.,.. ,, , , 


K£::i}::y/;::::v/:"v?v'->:f: 


f^ ; • I • ' ; • 5 j' 




hi 


■ 1 

LB-".:.: 




Small 

Fru.l. 


• Or'chard. ■ 

I : < : 
- » » » 

i 1 '. 1 




olo 

21:1 


1 Vegetable. 



Fig. 3 Suggestions in detail for laying out the grounds 
about the buildings on a prairie farm. Highway on south, size 
30x37 rods enclosing five acres; windbreak on north and west five 
rods wide. Two rows of trees next to highway. Rows of trees in- 
dicated. 



buildings, barnyards, garden and orchard, and, while all the 
land enclosed may not be needed for these purposes, the re- 
mainder is well adapted to the growing of general farm crops. 



12 ' FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

The plans are only suggestive and no attempt is made to work 
out details, and there are comparatively few farms that they 
would fit exactly. For instance, while it is desirable to have 
the buildings centrally located, their position must frequently 
be pushed to one side on account of a swamp or lowland which 
is not suitable for them, or their position may be determined 
by a beautiful natural grove. Figure 3 shows a plan for a 
south front drawn on a larger scale. It may often be desirable 
to change the shape of the land enclosed, but in the great ma- 
jority of prairie farms a plan similar to this would work out to 
good advantage and the area enclosed by windbreaks could 
often be increased to ten acres to good advantage. 

A rule that should be carefully followed in all tree plant- 
ings is that the view from the most commonly used rooms of 
anything that is suggestive of pleasant associations or that 
is especially interesting or entertaining should not be cut off. 
Under this head would be included the view, from the living- 
room windows, of the traveled wagon road or perhaps of the 
railroad, of the neighboring houses or perhaps a nearby lake, 
and of the important fields on the farm, especially those where 
stock is pastured. These views can generally be secured 
without seriously impairing the value of the windbreaks, by 
cutting small openings in them or perhaps by simply shorten- 
ing the trees, so that they will not interfere with the line of 
sight. Plantings of this kind often add very much to the 
comfort and actual income from the place and the land oc- 
cupied by tliem may generally be regarded as the most pro- 
ductive of any on the farm when its effect on the live stock 
and gardens and the comfort of the famJly is considered. It 
also adds very much to the selling value of a place. 



CHAPTER II. 

LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 

The gardening art offers this advantage to its lovers; 
that they may everywhere enjoy it and that with comparative- 
ly small expense they may practice it on their own account. 
The poor washerwoman, who has hardly time to look at the 
statue of Washington in the city park and scarce money 
enough to buy a chromo, is quite able to grow geraniums in 
her window and to have a pretty bed of marigolds and phloxes 
in the yard. The opportunities to cultivate a taste for this sort 
of landscape art lie all about us, while to only a few comes 
the freedom of art galleries and exhibitions. How cheap and 
simple materials may be combined to give an excellent ef- 
fect can hardly be known until one has seen a few good object 
lessons in the use of simple and inexpensive materials for out- 
door decorations. The high priced novelties of nurserymen's 
catalogues are not necessary nor often even desirable for 
finest effects, and too often they are tender and unreliable. 
Much more of beauty is affected by the skill with which the 
planting is arranged than by the material used. 

In laying out grounds in general the most important thing 
is to have a plan that shall be sufficiently comprehensive to 
include the whole scheme of the location of buildings and 
drives, and the planting of trees and shrubs. This plan should 
be made with much care and only after much study. 

There are two general styles of gardening. The first, 
which is known as the "formal" or Italian style, is character- 
ized by the uniform and geometrical patterns as seen in the 
fioxfer beds in our parks. It is best adapted for use about 
buildings and for very small places. The "natural" style, also 
known as the English style, which is the most popular kind 
of ornamental gardening in this country and generally in 
Europe, may be best seen in this section in the parks of St. 
Paul and Minneapolis. In it straight lines, regular curves, 
trimmed trees and anything that tends to take away the soft 



14 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

effects of natural lines are out of place. This is the style best 
adapted for farms and country places in general, for the reason 
that it easily fits into natural conditions and is least expensive 
in maintenance. It is to the study of this styld of gardening 
that we shall devote ourselves here. 

Before considering so large a subject in detail it is im- 
portant to become thoroughly familiar with the material at 
our disposal, i. e. the ornamental trees, shrubs, grasses, plants, 
rocks, views of interesting objects on our own or neighboring 
grounds, and in proportion as we use all the material at our 
disposal to good advantage will our work be a success or fail- 
ure. In planning such work it is important to get the whole 
family interested, for there is nothing that holds the children 
to the old home as the trees and plants they have planted or 
helped to plant and care for. 

In establishing new homes, the most important thing to 
be considered is healthfulness of surroundings, including water 
supply, after which comes convenience, kind of soil, outlook 
and general beauty. 

Plans. For new homes, consider all the points of interest 
carefully before beginning the work. This is much more satis- 
factory than the making of plans for places already establish- 
ed. Where it is a question of improving old grounds a diffi- 
cult problem is often presented, and to properly treat this 
kind of a subject requires in many cases great skill. 

Healthfulness of Location is of first importance. Avoid 
low land, especially if swampy, even if it is well drained arti- 
ficially. Good drainage is a most important factor in making 
for healthfulness of location. Provide properly for sewage 
waste. 

Convenience. Build convenient to friends, so as not to 
be too much isolated. One should consider nearness to rail- 
road, to school, church, library, etc.; main streets or side 
streets. On farms build for convenience of situation for 
doing work. Build economically; a house begins to lose in 
value from the day it is completed. 

Height of Land. Among the advantages of high land may 
be mentioned pure air, better drainage, extent of view. Among 
the disadvantages of high land are the extra effort to reach 
such places, greater exposure to wind, extra cost of maintain- 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 15 

ing drives and walks on ste^p slopes and extra cost of heat- 
ing house in exposed situations. 

Slope. Southern or southeastern slopes are best in cold 
weather, as they are protected from the, cold winds, and, if 
the outlook is good should be preferred to west or northwest- 
ern slope. Yet with proper tree plantings northern slopes can 
be made very pleasant. 

Good Water is a most important feature. Nothing causes 
more misery than poor water. Source of water should be care- 
fully investigated. The sources of contamination in the coun- 
try and in villages are cesspools, sink drains, stable yards, 
etc. The best water supply is from a clean reservoir, as by 
long exposure to sun and air it becomes purified, but such 
water does not sparkle like that fresh from wells. Clean 
cisterns afford a good supply of healthful drinking water. , Soft 
water is better than hard for drinking or other purposes. 

Kind of Soil. On this depends much of the success of our 
ornamental planting. One kind of soil will not suit all kinds 
of plants; yet in any fairly good soil most of our best orna- 
mental plants will grow well. 

Rocks, Water, Distant Views and other natural features of 
our location should be considered and may add wonderful 
beauty to our grounds if properly handled. "Ledges" and 
"boulders" serve as a nucleous around which to group orna- 
mental trees, shrubs and vines. "Water" in the near vicinity 
may not always be desirable, but where exposed to full circu- 
lation of air, and if the land near by is cons-iderably elevated 
it may often produce m.uch beauty. But too often it becomes 
stagnant and a breeding place for mosquitoes. A brook, on 
the other hand, has not the quiet restfulness of the lake, but 
is more satisfactory, especially if it can be arranged so as to 
get its ideal ripple and gurgle. In order to have any near-by 
water enjoyable it should not be contaminated by sewage or 
other waste. Association of thoughts have much to do with 
enjoyment. 

An Increase in Value of Locations in growing towns and 
cities may generally be regarded as certain, if good judgment 
is displayed in selection and buying. The increase in value 
of places due to proper planting is illustrated in many ways. 

Amount of Land to Start With. Use only what can be 
well cared for. Do not build houses or other improvements 



16 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

so expensive as to be beyond your means to maintain. Happi- 
ness is not increased by living beyond one's income. 

Location of House. Wliere possible, put at some distance 
from street, and it is often best to locate on one side of lot. 
Where many houses are already built on a street it often de- 
tracts from its beauty to set it very much out of line with 
the others. 

The Approach to House should be such as will be in accord 
with its pretensions. In the case of large grounds this may 
be made a grand feature of ornamentation by being planted 
with fine trees, but in small grounds it should occupy as little 
space as practicable and should be as inconspicuous as possible. 
There is nothing that tends to reduce the apparent size of 
grounds as to cut them up with walks and drives, and the wider 
the drives the worse their appearance. The drives may often 
come in on the north side and so avoid interfering with the 
view from the windows of the south side. The same is true 
of the staircase and front door. They should not be placed on 
the pleasantest side of the house but this should be reserved 
for living rooms. 

The Architecture of the house should be in keeping with 
the surroundings. A large pretentious house, built in a quiet 
and secluded place, is not in good taste. 

The Cost of House and Grounds generally exceeds the ex- 
ceeds the estimates 25 to 50 per cent, due to changes made in 
plans after contract is let. This should be borne in mind in 
building. Consider plans carefully before letting the contract. 

The Cellar. There is little necessity for large cellars for 
storage in villages as with convenient stores it is not neces- 
sary. They should be large enough for heating plant and fuel. 
They must be dry in order to be sanitary and to prevent heat- 
ing plant from rust. They should be ventilated in summer 
especially. If possible do not store vegetables under dwelling, 
but use a storage cellar outside. 

Perfect Ventilation in the house is very important. It is 
probably best to have the hot air come in above and go out on 
the same side below. A house heats best when some system 
of ventilation is provided. 

Preliminary Grading. Vhen excavating for a cellar, scrape 
surface soil to one side for surfacing later. In making fills, 
save the black soil to go on top of inferior material. The 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 17 

surface of the lawn should slope away from the house in all di- 
rections, so there shall be no standing surface water, but 
some hollows may be left near trees and shrubbery at a dis- 
tance from the house, in the case of gfavelly land, to catch 
the water from summer showers — which is all needed on such 
soil. Where water stands on the lawn in winter it will often 
kill out the grass. Trees and shrubbery which it is intended 
to save should be protected during building and grading opera- 
tions or they will be injured. 

Slopes should be easy and gradual. Terraces should be 
avoided as they are hard to maintain in good order and add 
no beauty. 

Lawn. This may be considered the canvas onto which we 
are to make our home picture by trees, shrubs and other ma- 
terials and the buildings. The whole thing, when finished, 
will be an index of our knowledge of the grouping of these 
units, and very often it is also an index of the character of the 
owner. For a good lawn we must have good soil, and no after 
treatment by special manuring or special grass seed can fully 
make up for carelessness in the preparation of the soil in the 
beginning. The soil should be pulverized deep, raked fine, and 
heavily manured. 

Grass Seed and Seed Sowing. Our best lawns are made 
up of nearly pure Kentucky Blue Grass. As this grass does 
not start quickly it is customary to sow a little Red Top and 
White Clover with it, as these show quickly the first season, 
but later on are killed out by the Blue Grass. Perhaps for 
this section a mixture of 3 bushels of Blue Grass, 3 pounds 
solid Red Top and 3 pounds White Clover per acre is as good 
as any for seeding lawns. 

The time for sowing grass seed will depend upon circum- 
stances. As a rule early spring is the best time, but if water 
is plentiful, so the seed can be kept from drying out, August 
will be found a very good time. July and August are general- 
ly so hot and dry that seed is very uncertain when sown at 
that time. In sowing the seed much care should be taken to 
scatter it evenly, and it should be raked in and rolled. Rolling 
is important as it leaves a smooth surface. 

Where it is desirable to get a grass cover at once oats may 
be sown with the grass and be cut off when six inches high, 
and if afterwards frequently cut with a lawn mower makes a 



18 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

very good, coarse lawn and does not interfere with the devel- 
opment of the seed of finer grasses. 

Sodding is sometimes resorted to in order to get a lawn 
quickly. It has the advantage that it can be done at any time 
and gives a lawn at once; but it is very expensive and generally 
no better than seeding. It is a good plan, however, to border 
the walks with sod to define their lines. 

Mowing Lawns. The lawn mov/er should not be allowed 
on the new lawn until it is well established, and the first Cut- 
tings should be done by hand. After the lawn is established 
it should be frequently cut, especially during the cool weather 
of spring and early autumn — if a fine close turf is the object. 
Most of the clippings may be allowed to remain on the lawn, 
when they are not heavy enough to smother out the grass, but 
when heavy they should be carried away. 

Renewing Old Lawns is most easily accomplished by the 
tise of very fine, well rotted compost, or rich loam, which 
should be scattered thinly over the grass about one-half inch 
deep, so the grass will push up through it. Grass may also be 
sown in it. Covering lawns in autumn, or at other times, with 
coarse stable fertilizer leaves the lawn unsightly and often re- 
sults in killing it out in spots. Tankage is a good fertilizer for 
this purpose, to be used at the rate of 1,000 lbs. per.acre. The 
most quickly acting fertilizing substance is nitrate of soda, 
which may be applied at the rate of 150 lbs. per acre in two or 
three weeks, but not oftener. It gives the grass a dark green 
appearance, as well as makes it grow rapidly, but it is not need- 
ed where proper attention has been given to preparing the soil. 

Re-Seeding may be resorted to where bare spots come :n 
the lawn. This should be done in early spring. The annual 
grasses are often very unsightly and annoying, but close cut- 
ting with the lawn mower and hand weeding will generally 
remedy the trouble. Before re-seeding it is a good plan to re- 
surface the bare spots with fresh loam. 

The Use of Trees about the home is desirable for furnish- 
ing shade during the hot days of our summer months and for 
the protection they give from the cold winds of winter. They 
are also necessary in many places to cover up unsightly or un- 
pleasant objects, to open up vistas, to form backgrounds for 
other ornamental materials, for their own individual beauty, and 
also for the variety they afford in their varying shades of color 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 19 

and form. Trees, as well as other woody plants, vary in their as- 
pect with each season. Some trees and shrubs, like the Scar- 
let Maple and the Sheepberry, are noted for their fine autumn 
coloring, and others for some conspicuous features in winter, 
as for instance the White Birch and the Golden Willow, while 
all are attractive during the growing season. Some trees pro- 
duce beautiful flowers and fruit and others attractive foliage; 
some take on the regular spiry form, and others grow with 
well-rounded outline; some have a spreading, delicate habit, 
while others are compact, close and massive in their build. 

Distance Between Trees should vary according to the var- 
iety and soil, and to the objects in view. Thus the White Elm 
in good soil should eventually have at least forty feet for best 
results, while on poor soil thirty feet would be enough. It is, 
however, a good plan to plant rather close at first and thin 
out later on. This is especially true of the conifers in this cli- 
mate, which generally do best when planted in groups, as in 
this way they protect one another. This is especially true of 
western Minnesota and Dakota where they are not at home. 

Where To Obtain Trees. As a rule trees and shrubs do 
best if obtained from some good nursery, as such trees gener- 
ally have better roots than those obtained from the woods, but 
Elms, Maples and Basswoods generally do very well when dug 
from our woods. To do this successfully young trees should be 
selected. If these are cut around with a spade in the spring 
of the preceding year, about one foot from the trunks, they will 
grow much better than if moved without this preparation. 
In the case of Oaks, Hickories and other tap-rooted trees, 
this is most important, while Elms and Ash do very well with- 
out this preparation. 

Time to Plant. Autumn planting may be done in case of 
the Elm, when we have very favorable conditions, but as a 
rule very early spring planting is better for all trees. In 
wind swept locations it is extremely doubtful if autumn plant- 
ing should ever be practiced with any but herbaceous plants 
which may be easily protected. Coniferous trees may be suc- 
cessfully moved at any tfme when we have favorable condi- 
tions, but spring is the best time. 

How to Dig a Tree. More trees die from injuries re- 
ceived in digging than from any other cause. A good roo\ 
system is most desirable. In digging a tree set the spade in 



20 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

the ground with one edge toward the trunk, so as not to cut 
the roots, and then throw off the soil down to the roots in a 
circle, varying from one to four feet, according to the size 
of the trees. Then cut off the roots at a reasonable distance 
from the trunk, when with the aid of a strong spade the tree 
can very likely be loosened. If, however, it has one or more 
tap roots, it will be necessary to dig under and cut them off. 
Small trees can often be lifted by the spade without much un- 
covering of the roots. In moving large trees a trench must 
be dug around them two or three feet deep, and the deep 
roots cut off. The soil should then be partially shaken off 
until the ball is light enough to be dragged out of the hole. 
Sometimes large trees can best be moved in winter, after the 
ball of earth is frozen, but the holes should be prepared in 
advance, and the frost kept out, so the planting work can be 
properly done in winter. 

Pruning Trees for Transplanting. In digging trees the 
root system is necessarily much injured and it is a good plan 
to shorten in the top correspondingly. When pruning is not 
practiced the trees seldom start as well as when severely 
pruned, but it is not a good plan to prune so severely as to 
disfigure the trees. Pruning at time of transplanting is often 
necessary in order to start branches at the desired height. 
If low branching trees are desired, it is often necessary to 
prune them severely at the top. This is especially the case 
with Elms and other trees taken from thickets where they 
have grown very tall. In such cases good results may be ob- 
tained by cutting the trunk to a bare pole — 12 feet high. The 
roots also require a little pruning, which should consist of 
cutting off the badly bruised portion. When large branches 
are cut off they should be covered with shellac, or painted. 

Shrubs can seldom be used as screens, but are valuable 
for defining division lines between city lots, for the great 
variety of color and form which is found among them and 
especially for their use in grouping about the borders and 
in other places to give a softening effect to tree planting. 
They offer a much greater variety of material than the trees. 
Beginners generally understand the value of a collection of 
trees as windbreaks and as street trees, but shrubs are too 
often planted as individuals and without regard to their col- 
lective effect. By using them in masses, they may be made 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 



21 



to produce strong and very pleasing effects. They may even 
be combined with herbaceous plants and their effect greatly 
heightened in this way. We have some very beautiful shrubs 
in our woods, and among the best are tlie Kinnikinnick or 
Dogwood, the Silky Cornel, High Bush Cranberry, Juneberry, 
Burning Bush, Elderberry, Sheepberry, These can often be 
gathered from the woods without any serious expense. Among 
the hardiest and best of the introduced plants are the Lilacs, 
Tartarian Honeysuckles, Hydrangea, Spireas, Caragana and 
Snowball. Among the best hardy vines or climbing shrubs are 
the Virginia Creeper, Wild Grape, Clematis and Bittersweet, 
all of which are native in our woodlands and thickets. 




a. - - - ^ 

Fig. 4. Showing- best method of cutting back Willows to get 
best lenevval fiom the stump. 

Herbaceous plants can often be used to good advantage and 
will give good results. They are very easily protected in 
winter. Among the best and hardiest are the Peonies and 
Irises, which, with slight protection, are perfectly hardy and 
most satisfactory. But many others are easily grown. 

The Pruning of Trees and Shrubs, or of any other plant, 
should never be attempted unless with some definite purpose 
in view. In the case of trees it is seldom that more pruning 
is needed other than to cut off awkward branches or those 
that interfere with travel. The best time to do this is prob- 
ably in June. 



22 FARM WIND-BREA1.3. 

In the case of shrubs, siifRcient priming should be given 
to l^eep the plant in good form. In no case should they be 
pruned to stiff, formal shapes. Every shrub has its own pe- 
culiar graceful form, and pruning should be done to develop 
it and not to change it. As a general rule, shrubs should be 
pruned by taking out the stems or branches from the inside, 
to make room for new shoots. The shrubs that bloom early 
in spring form their flowers the year before and hence should 
be pruned immediately after they are done flowering. Shrubs 
that flower in August should be pruned in the early spring, 
so as not to interfere with their flowering. 

Fruit Trees may often be worked into the ornamental fea- 
tures of the planting design. Such trees as the plum, apple, 
crab-apple and cherry have good form and foliage and are es- 
pecially beautiful when in flower or in fruit and to many per- 
sons have in interest that mere ornamental plants do not 
possess. 

The Grounds About Our School Houses should be large 
enough to afford good play grounds and a chance for orna- 
mentation at the same time. Where the grounds are small 
they must generally be used for play grounds; where they 
are large enough it would add much to their interest to have 
a variety of trees and shrubs and a few vines of our most 
hardy kinds. These should be labeled plainly with their com- 
mon names, as without labels they are of little interest to 
the amateur. If this feature of our school grounds could be 
more generally developed it would become most valuable in 
teaching habits of observation. In this work much depends 
upon the teacher — who has here a rare opportunity of teach- 
ing object lessons to the whole community, 



CHAPTER III. 

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 

Trees are Grown from Seeds or by Division. The latter 
term inclufies increase by cuttings, layers, buds and grafts. 
Plants grown from seeds are generally more vigorous and 
longer lived than those of the same species propagated in any 
other way. Trees should be grown from seeds when it is prac- 
ticable to do so, but willows and some other trees are appar- 
ent exceptions to this rule and seem to do as well when grown 
from cuttings as when grown from seeds. Varieties do not 
generally perpetuate their peculiar characteristics when grown 
from seeds, and must therefore be propagated by some method 
of division. 

The iVlost Desirable Trees from Wliich to Propagate are 
those of good form and healthy growth; the latter is the one 
most important requisite, especially if new plants are to be 
grown by any method of division. It is not so essential in 
selecting seeds, as even weak plants may produce good seed- 
lings, but unhealthy cuttings, layers or grafts are of very un- 
certain growth. In general, it is best that the stock trees be 
healthy throughout, but a tree may have a rotten trunk due 
to some injury and still have perfectly healthy branches and be 
a desirable tree from which to propagate. 

SEEDS. 

Sources of Seeds. In growing trees from seeds the source 
of the seeds is very important. It may be given as a safe 
general rule that seeds are most desirable which come from 
trees grown in as severe a climate as that in which the seeds 
are to be sown. It has been found that trees of Boxelder and 
Red Cedar grown from seeds gathered in Missouri are not near- 
ly so hardy in this section as those from seeds grown in our 
own state. It has also been found that seeds from the western 
slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where the climate is very hu- 



24 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

mid, produce trees which are not so well adapted to with- 
standing the conditions of this section as trees grown from 
seeds from the eastern slopes, where the summers are very 
dry and hot and the winter very dry and cold. Our climate 
is especially trying to trees, and it is necessary to exercise 
much more care in the selection of tree seeds here than it is in 
the more favored climate of the eastern and western coast 
states. 

There are Conditions Under Which Every Species of Tre» 
Thrives Best and makes its greatest growth, but the trees pro- 
duced under these conditions are not always the hardiest. 
As we reach the limits of their growth, trees have a tendency 
on account of drouth or cold to become smaller, more com- 
pact in form and to fruit younger; e. g., the Boxelder is a 
large tree in Kansas and Missouri, but as it gets towards the 
Manitoba line we find it becomes dwarfed and more bushy in 
habit. Towards the southern limit of its range the tree be- 
comes more open in habit and more liable to disease. The 
Scotch Pine seeds imported into this country are generally 
saved from the small scrubby trees that are found in the higher 
altitudes of the mountains of Europe, because such trees pro- 
duce the most seeds and they are most easily gathered from 
them, while seeds are seldom gathered from the large timber 
trees of this species, and it is very likely that this poor seed 
stock is responsible for much of the scrubby appearance of 
many Scotch Pine plantations in this section. 

Trees Have a Strong Tendency to Perpetuate Qualities 
which have been developed in them by climate and soil condi- 
tions. Hence, even though an essential point in considering 
the value of any tree is its hardiness, the question of size is 
important and should be taken into account, as we generally 
wish to grow trees of as large size as practicable. We may 
conclude, then, that since trees from a very cold climate gener- 
ally lack in hardiness, and those from a very severe climate 
may lack in size, it is best to procure seeds from the best 
trees grown near by or from those grown under similar climat- 
ic conditions elsewhere. It is not generally necessary to limit 
this range very closely, as a hundred miles north or south 
of a given point will seldom make much difference in hardi- 
ness, unless the climatic conditions are very dissimilar. 

The Place Where the Trees that We are to Set Out are 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 25 

Grown is not of so great importance as the source of the seeds 
from which they are grown; e. g., seedlings of Red Cedar 
grown in Missouri from seeds of native Minn^esota trees would 
be safer to plant here than seedlings raised in Minnesota frou 
the seeds of native Missouri trees. 

Seedling Variations. In our common trees variations are 
not sufficiently marked but that we think of the trees as com- 
ing true from seeds, and yet careful observation will show 
to any one that each seedling plant is different from neighbor- 
ing plants of the same species. Sometimes a seedling will 
occur that possesses especially -pleasing or curious character- 
istics that are very marked and desirable. In such cases the 
seedling is generally propagated by some method of bud-di- 
vision and makes a new variety. In this way have originated 
such highly esteemed kinds as Wier's Cut-leaf Maple, which 
was a chance seedling of the Soft Maple, the Weeping Ameri- 
can Elm, Cut-leaf Birch, Weeping Mountain Ash, Pyramidal 
Arborvitae, and a host of other kinds that are propagated by 
bud-division by nurserymen. The person who is on the lookout 
for these or other variations will have no trouble in finding 
many that may perhaps be worth naming and propagating. 

Gathering Seeds. All kinds of seeds should be gathered 
when ripe. In some cases it is best to pick them from the 
trees even before they are quite ripe, after which they will 
ripen if kept dry. Unripe seeds do not keep as well as perfect- 
ly ripe seeds. Most kinds of tree seeds are most cheaply 
gathered from the ground. In some cases this method can be 
greatly facilitated by cleaning up the land under the trees 
so it will be smooth and even. Seeds of some species can of- 
ten be swept up at little expense from under trees growing 
along the highway. 

Germination of Seeds. There are many conditions which 
affect the germination of seeds: 

(1) Seeds which are thoroughly ripened before they are 
gathered produce the best plants. Very immature seeds will 
very often grow, but the tendency with them is to produce 
weak plants. (2) Freshly gathered seeds, as a rule, are 
preferable to old seeds for sowing, and seeds that have never 
been allowed to become very dry are more likely to grow than 
those which have been severely dried. This is especially true 
of most of the kinds of seeds that ripen in early summer, 



26 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

the most of which lose their vitality very quickly when stor- 
ed. (3) Some seeds, such as those of the Plum, Cherry and 
Black Walnut, require severe freezing when moist in order 
to germinate. (4) Seeds that are covered with water will 
not generally grow. This is true at least of our northern tree 
seeds. (5) The seeds of some trees germinate at a tempera- 
ture near freezing, while others require a much higher, tem- 
perature. (6) After seeds of some plants have become very 
dry, scalding may aid them in germinating, while with others 
scalding is injurious. It is sometimes desirable to soak seeds 
for one or two days in tepid water, and then mix with sand 
and freeze before sowing. Lindley records that seeds found 
in raspberry jam grew after passing through the heat neces- 
sary to boil syrup (240 degrees Fahr.) and that seeds of Acacia 
and Lophantha grew after being boiled five minutes, but our 
common tree seeds will not stand such treatment. 

Stratification, as the term is used in this connection, refers 
to the storing of seeds mixed with layers of earth, leaves or 
other material. It is customary to apply the term solely to 
seeds that are mixed in this way and kept frozen over winter. 
It is the common practice with the seeds of such trees as the 
Black Walnut, Hickory, Basswood, Plum, Cherry and Moun- 
tain Ash. Where only small quantities are to be cared for they 
are generally mixed in boxes and the boxes buried in well 
drained soil out of doors, but where large quantities are to be 
handled they may be mixed with soil on the surface of the 
ground and left until spring; such a pile is termed a pit. Ono 
of the best materials with which to cover seed pits is inverted 
grass sod. It is a good plan to have the material that is 
mixed with the seed so fine that it will easily go through a 
•screen and leave the seeds separated for sowing. 

Wintering Acorns and Other Nuts in Large Quantities. 
On account of the great liability to injury where a large 
amount of nuts are stored in heaps, and on account of the im- 
practibility many times of stratifying them with sand, the 
following plan is resorted to in some sections: 

A house is made, preferably with a sandy floor, so as to 
secure good drainage, and is covered with sod roof and sides, 
so as to keep out most of the frost. This may be of any size, 
but perhaps 20 feet in width and any length would be very con- 
venient. The nuts are spread over the ground about 18 inches 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 27 

thick, and are kept stirred untif frozen in winter. As soon as 
they thaw out, they are turned once a day. In this way they 
are prevented from moulding, and from the other injuries that 
are so common to nuts stored in large quantities. It would be de- 
sirable to keep the temperature from ever going much belov/ 
freezing. 

Seeds May be Classified Into Three Groups: (1) Those 
that ripen in spiing and early summer, (2) deciduous tree 
seeds that ripen in autumn, and (3) coniferous tree seeds. 

Seeds that Ripen in Spring and Early Summer should 
be gathered as soon as ripe, and, with the exception of the 
Red Elm, sown within a few days or weeks, as they retain 
their vitality but a short time. (Red Elm seed will not grow 
until the following spring.) In raising seedlings of this class 
it is important to have land that will retain its moisture dur- 
ing the Slimmer months or else that which can be conveniently 
irrigated, since these seeds m.ust often be sown during very 
hot, dry weather, and as they cannot be covered deeply they 
are very liable to fail with any but the best conditions. The 
thousands of seedlings of Cottonwood, Elm, and Soft Maple 
that spring up on the sand bars along our rivers and lake 
shores show what are the best conditions for these seeds to 
germinate. 

Cottonwood Seedlings can be grown by scattering the 
branches bearing unopened seed pods along rows in moist soil 
and covering the seed lightly when it falls, but they are of sc» 
uncertain growth that most of our nurserymen depend upon 
the sand bars and lake shores for their supply. 

Elm, Soft Maple and Mulberry seeds generally grow well 
on any good moist soil. They should be sown thickly in 
drills eight inches wide and three feet apart, or in narrow drills. 
Elm seeds should be covered with about one-half inch of soil, 
Mulberry with about one-fourth inch and Soft Maple with 
about one inch. If the weather is dry the soil over the seeds 
should be well packed, and if the weather continues dry the 
rows should be watered. Watering, however, is seldom neces- 
sary on retentive soil if the soil has been properly packed. 
With proper conditions seeds so planted will start quickly 
and grow rapidly; the Elm will grow from six to eighteen 
inches and t*he Soft Maple twelve to twenty-four inches high be- 
fore the first autumn. Such seedlings are large enough for perma- 



28 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 



n 



nent setting in forest plantations or windbreal^s. They may- 
be allowed to grow in the seed bed another year without in- 
jury, but should be transplanted before the growth of the 
third season begins. 

Seeds of Deciduous Trees that Ripen in Autumn may be 
sown to advantage in the autumn; provided, (1) the soil is 
not of such a nature as to become too solidly packed over 
them before spring; (2) they are not liable to dry up or wash 
out; or (3) they are not subject to injuries from rodents, in- 
sects or other animals. In many locations some or all of 
these possible injuries may make spring sowing most desirable 
with most kinds of seeds. Our most successful nurserymen, 
however, prefer to sow in autumn, and try to bring about the 
conditions that make it successful. 

In the Matter of Storing Seeds it is difficult to lay down 
any exact rule to follow, and here, as in all other similar mat- 
ters, considerable must be left to good judgment. As a rule, 
however, it is perfectly safe to winter over all of the seeds of 
hardy plants which ripen in autumn, by burying them in 
sand out of doors. 

Tree Seeds that Ripen in Autumn may be divided into 
four classes, which require different methods of treatment to 
grow them, viz., dry seeds, seeds with fleshy coverings, nut 
seeds and leguminous tree seeds. 

Dry Seeds, like those of the Ash, Birch, Hard Maple and 
Boxelder, are very certain to grow when sown in the spring 
in drills as soon as the soil can be easily worked, in the same 
way as recommended for Soft Maple and Elm. If not sown 
until spring they will have to be kept over winter, and when 
only a small quantity is to be kept over this is best done by 
spreading the seeds on the surface of the hard ground, cover- 
ing with an inverted box and digging a ditch around it to car- 
ry off the water, or the seeds may be mixed with sand and 
kept in a dry, cool place. Large quantities may be kept on 
dry ground under a shed. These seeds will stand considerable 
drying, but if allowed to become very dry, hot, or moist, their 
vitality may be injured or destroyed. 

Seeds with Fleshy Coverings, as those of the Cherry and 
Plum should be kept from getting dry before planting. The 
best way to handle them is to separate them from the pulp, 
mix with moist sand out of doors, and keep them moist until 



30 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

planted. It is generally safe to sow such seeds in the autumn 
on good land, but some growers prefer to sow them in the 
spring. This class of seeds requires to be frozen before ger- 
minating. If allowed to get dry before being frozen, they 
should be mixed with moist sand for a few days until plump, 
or they may be soaked in water, but care must be taken that 
they do not get water soaked. Sometimes the dry, hard shells 
of such seeds seem to be waterproof. In this case, if the 
seeds are of special value, it is a good plan to file a hole 
through the shell, so as to let the seed become moist. Most 
seeds of this class grow the first year if properly handled, but 
some of them — for example, the Red Cedar and the Wild 
Thorn — even with the best management, will remain dormant 
in the ground for one year before growing. 

Nut Seeds, as those of the Oak, Hickory and Walnut, 
should be handled as recommended for seeds with fleshy cov- 
erings, but are more sensitive about being severely dried. As 
they do not transplant readily, it is very desirable to plant 
them where they are to remain permanently. They should 
be covered about two inches deep. 

Seeds of Leguminous Trees, as those of the Black Locust, 
Honey Locust and Coffeetree, will stand severe drying for a 
long time and still grow, provided they are treated with hoi 
water just before planting. In this case the hot water should 
be poured over the seeds shortly before they are sown, and 
be allowed to stand until cool, when it will be found that some 
of the seeds have swollen up; these should be picked out, and 
the remainder be treated again with hot water, and the pro- 
cess repeated until all have swollen. Seedlings of this class 
generally transplant readily, and are managed in the same 
way that is here recommended for the Ashes and Maples. 

Seeds of Leguminous Trees, as those of the Black Locust, 
and Arborvitae. are dry and winged, but the Red Cedar has 
a fleshy, berry-like covering surrounding its seed. The seeds 
that grow in cones are most easily gathered before being shed 
from the cones. The cones should be gathered before they 
open, and then dried, after which those of most species will 
open, and the seeds can be threshed out. Cones of a few trees, 
as those of the Jack Pine, will not open without artificial heat. 
These can be opened by gently heating them over a stove or 
in an oven to a temperature of from 100 to 150 degrees Fahr. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 31 

Seeds of this class grow read41y when sown, but must be very 
carefully stored or they will lose their vitality. They should 
be kept similarly to the seed of the Ash and Boxelder, but are 
more liable to injury than these kinds frojn too much moisture 
or heat, and for this reason some careful growers prefer to 
always keep them mixed with dry sand in a cool shed. 

The seeds of the Red Cedar hang on the tree all winter, 
and must be picked by hand. They should be soaked in 
strong lye for twenty-four hours, the fleshy covering removed 
by rubbing them against a fine sieve, and then stratified in 
sand, where they will be frozen during the winter. Even with 
this treatment they will seldom grow until the second year. 

R'alsing Coniferous Trees from Seed. The land selected 
for sowing the seed should have a light, porous surface soil, 
preferably underlaid with a moist subsoil that will not dry 
out easily. It should be so located as to have good circula- 
tion of air over it, that the plants may dry off quickly after 
rains, and it must be so shaded as to keep off about one-half 
of the sunlight. This latter permits a play of light and shade 
over the bed all day, and is about the condition under which 
we find nature raising such seedlings where trees partially 
shade the ground and protect them from the constant rays of 
the sun. In practice we aim to secure these conditions as fol- 
lows: A piece of well drained, rather sandy soil, in an airy 
place is selected, and laid out in beds four feet wide. In May 
the seeds are sown rather thickly (about three good seeds 
to a square inch), either' broadcast or in rows, and covered 
with about one-fourth inch of sandy loam and then with about 
oue-fourth inch of clear sand. Some of the smaller seeds, like 
those of White Spruce, should not be covered more than one- 
fourth inch. Before the seedlings break the ground, a frame- 
work six feet above the beds, is made, and covered with laths, 
laid about one and one-half inches apart, running north and 
south, or with sufficient brush to shut out about one-half the 
sunlight. If the bed is very much exposed to the winds it 
should have similar protection on all sides. In such a place 
as this, or in woodlands where these conditions can be ful- 
filled, evergreens can be raised with much certainty, while 
if planted in the open ground most kinds are sure to fail. 

The most common cause of failure with those who try lo 
raise evergreens is what is known as "damping off," which 



32 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

occurs only while the plants are growing rapidly the first year. 
In such a case the seeds start well, and the seedlings grow 
vigorously for a short time, or until we have a spell of damp 
weather, and then die off with great rapidity. It seems that 
the sunlight and the mud that has been spattered on the plants 
so weaken them that they are liable to disease. For this reason 
we shade the bed and cover with sand, which will not allow 
the mud to be spattered over the seedlings, and in very moist 
warm weather we occasionally apply dry sand to dry off the 
plants. For most kind of conifers the shade is required for 
at least two years. 

Coniferous tree seedlings grow very slowly when youn'j;, 
seldom making a growth of more than two or three inches the 
first year. The most rapid growing of our pines seldom pro- 
duce a growth of more than sixteen inches in the first four 
years, and should not be moved to their permanent place until 




Fig. 6. Evciyiucii t;t(jd bed shaded with a screen of old brush 
placed on a frame. . 

about this time. They should, however, be transplanted from 
the seed bed to a temporary place when two years old, to 
prevent crowding and to facilitate root growth. 

On the approach of winter the beds of coniferous seed- 
lings should be covered with about three inches of straw v:r 
leaves, evergreen branches, or other material that will afford 
protection from the sun and from alternate freezing and thaw- 
ing. This should be removed in the spring after all danger 
from drying cold v/inds has passed. 

Depth to Cover Seeds. Most of our tree seeds should, 
in good soil, be covered from one-half to three-quarters of an 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 33 

fnch; but this is rather too inuch for such small seeds as the 
Birch, Alder and Cottonwood, while the Black Walnut, Native 
Plum, Acorns and other large seeds and seeds of Boxelder, 
Ash, Soft Maple and Basswood may oJ^ten be covered two 
inches to advantage if the soil is somewhat dry. It is a good 
rule not to cover any tree seeds deeper than is necessary to 
secure permanent moisture, and on wet or heavy land only a 
very thin covering is desirable. If the land is very heavy, it is a 
good plan not only to cover lightly but to sow more thickly 
than usual, as a large number of seeds may be able to push 
up through the surface soil when a few would fail to do this. 
The Amount of Seeds of Deciduous Trees to Sow on a 
given area depends very much on the kind and quality of the 
seeds and the soil in which they are to be sown. As a ruie, 
thick is better than thin sowing. The seeds of Boxelder, Ash 
and Maple should be sown at the rate of about one good seed 
to the square inch; Elm and Birch should be sown twice as 
thick. Plums and cherries sown in drills should be allowed 
about one inch of row for each good seed. Black Walnut, 
Butternut, Hickory and similar seeds should preferably be 
planted three or four. in a place, and all but one seedling cut 
out when nicely started. If sown in drills they should be 
placed from three to six inches apart. Rather thick seeding 
does not seem to be any hindrance to the making of a go .id 
growth by seedlings of most of our broad-leaved trees the 
first year, but if left thick in the seed bed the 'second year 
they are often seriously stunted. On this account such seed- 
lings should be transplanted or thinned out before the begin- 
ning of the second year. In nursery planting it is a good plan 
to sow in freshly stirred land, as the seeds are far more likely 
to get a good start in it than in soil that has remained unfilled 
long enough to become crusty and lumpy. Then, if the seeds 
are planted immediately after cultivation has been given, and 
while the soil is still moist, they have at least as good a chance 
as the weeds to start, while otherwise the weeds are soon 
ahead of the seedlings. 

It is important to keep the soil loose and mellow between 
the seedlings, and to keep the weeds very carefully removed 
until at least the middle of July, after which they may some- 
times be left to advantage to afford winter protection; but in 
the case of very small seedlings this protection is best given by 



34 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

a light mulch, put on in autumn and taken off in spring, and 
the weeds should be kept out. 

If the seeds of Red Cedar, the Thorn, Mountain Ash. and 
other seeds that require a long time to start, are sown in the 
spring, and do not germinate, it is a good plan to cover the 
bed with about an inch or two of hay or leaves, keep out 
weeds, and let this mulch remain until the following spring, 
when the seeds will probably be in condition to grow, and ttio 
mulch should then be removed. 



TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR OLD 
SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL. 



Botanical Names. 


Common Names. 


Height in 
Inches. 


PiNUS STROBUS 


. . White Pine 


3 


PiNUS FLEXILIS 


. . Western White Pine. 


3 


PiNUS RESINOSA 


. . Red Pine 


3 


PiNUS DIVARICATA 


Jack Pine . 


3 


PiNUS PONDEROSA 8COPULORUM . 


. . Rock Pine . 


3 


PiNUS 8YLVESTRIS 




3 


PiNUS LARICIO AUSTRIACA 




3 


Larix LARICINA 

Larix europea 


. . Tamarack 

European Larch 


3 
3 


PiCEA canadensis 


. White Spruce. 


2 


PiCEA MARIANA 




2 


Picea pungens 

PiCEA ENGELMANNI 

PiCEA EXCELSA 

tsuga canadensis 

pseudotsuga taxifolia 

Abies balsamea 


. Blue Spruce 

. Engelma m Spruce 

. Norway Spruce 

. Hemlock 

. Douglas Spruce 

Balsam Fir 


3 
3 
2 
3 
4 
3 


Abies concolor 


WhitP Fir 


9 





PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 35 

TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE YEAR 

OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL. 

Height in 
Botanical Nasjies. Common Names. Irrches. 
■■ '■ « 

Thuja occidentalis Arborvitae 2 

JuNiPERUs viRGiNiANA Red Cedar 3 

JuNiPERUS communis Common Juniper 2 

JuGLANS nigra Black Walnut 12 

JUGLANS CINEREA Buttemut 12 

HicoRiA ovATA Shcllbark Hickory 8 

HicoRiA minima Bitternut Hickory 4 

Salix nigra Black Willow 10 

Salix AMYGDALOIDE8 Peachleaf Willow 10 

Salix alba White Willow 10 

Salix lucida Shining Willow 6 

PopuLus TREMULoiDES Aspen 10 

PoPULUS GRANDiDENTA Largetooth Poplar 12 

PopuLUS BALSAMiFERA Balsam Poplar 10 

PopuLus DELTOiDES Cottonwood 16 

Betula papyrifera Canoe Birch 4-8 

Betula alba European White Birch 6-10 

Betula lutea Yellow Birch . 4-8 

OsTRYA VIRGINIANA Hop Hornbeam 4-6 

Carpinus caroliniana Blue Beech 4-6 

Quercus alba White Oak 4-8 

QuERCus MACROCARPA Burr Oak 4-8 

Quercus rubra Red Oak 6-12 

Quercus coccinea Scarlet Oak 6-12 

Ulmus AMERICANA White Elm 6-12 

Ulmus racemosa Cork Elm 6-10 

Ulmus pubescens Slippery Elm 10-20 

CeltiS occidentalis Hackberry 8-10 

MoRUS RUBRA Red Mulberry 6-10 



36 FARM WIND-BREAKS 

TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE -YEAR 
OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL. 

Height in 

Botanical Names. Common Names. Inches. 

MoRUS ALBA tartarica Russian Mulberrj' 0-12 

Pyrus ioensis Wild Crab 4-8 

Pyrus AMERICANA American Mountain Ash ... 8 

Pyrus sambucifolia Elderleaf Mountain Ash. . . . 4-8 

Amelanchier canadensis Juneberry 8 

Crataegus tomentosa Black Thorn 4-8 

Prunus AMERICANA Wild Plum 15 

Prunus pennsylvanica Wild Red Cherry 12 

Prunus serotina Wild Cherry Black 12 

Prunus virginiana Choke Cherry 12 

Gleditsia triacanthos Honey Locust 8-12 

Gymnocladus dioicus Coffeetree 8-12 

Robinai pseudacacia Locust 24 

Acer saccharum Sugar Maple 12 

Acer platanoides Norway Maple 12 

Acer rubrum Red Maple 10 

Acer saccharinum Soft Maple 24 

Acer pennsylvanicum Striped Maple 4 

Acer tartaricum Tartarian Maple 4 

Acer negundo Boxelder 12 

.ascuLus HippocASTANUM Horse Chestnut 6 

jESCUlus glabra Ohio Buckeye 4-6 

Rhamnus catharicus Buckthorn 6-12 

Tilia AMERICANA Basswood 6-12 

Elaeagnus augustifolia Russian Olive 12 

Fraxinus AMERICANA White Ash 12 

Fraxinus lanceolata Green Ash 12 

Fraxinus nigra Black Ash 8 

Catalpa speciosa Hardy Catalpa 24 

Viburnum lentago Black Haw 4-6 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 37 

CUTTINGS. 

Cuttings are pieces of the branches or roots which have 
the power of growing and forming new giants when placed 
in moist sand, soil or other material. For example, the pieces 
of the twigs on branches of many kinds of willows and poplars, 
when taken while the tree is dormant, will root when placed 
in moist soil, but there are few other trees that grow as read- 
ily from cuttings as these. Cuttings of the roots of many 
kinds of trees, as the White Poplar, Wild Plum, Yellow Locust, 
and many others that sprout from the roots, will grow if treat- 
ed about the same way as branch cuttings. 

In growing trees from cuttings the source of the cuttings 
is not of so great importance as the source of the seed from 
which the stock trees were grown, for the qualities of individ- 
ual trees are probably not permanently or greatly changed by 
climate. For instance, trees grown from the cuttings of Rus- 
sian Poplars would be as hardy in Minnesota if the cuttings 
came from St. Louis, where they had been growing for years, 
as they would be if imported direct from Siberia. However, 
owing to a longer growing season at St. Louis, the wood 
might be of a more open texture, and perhaps might not resist 
cold as well as Minnesota-grown wood; but after one season's 
growth in Minnesota it would probably be as hardy. The 
same would hold true of plants propagated by any method of 
division. With the exception of Willows and Poplars, very 
few of our ornamental trees grow readily from cuttings.. The 
best time to make cuttings is in the fall, as soon as the leaves 
will strip easily from the twigs. Most of the willows and pop- 
lars will grow readily from cuttings made in the spring, and 
even those made in summer will generally grow if planted in 
moist soil. For this purpose the smaller branches with leaves 
removed should be used. They may also be rooted from grow- 
ing twigs with the leaves left on, provided the cut surfaces 
are placed in water, as they would be if stuck in the soil of a 
swamp or treated the same as cuttings of geraniums. These 
latter ways, however, are not to be depended upon for gener- 
al propagation purposes. 

The Form and Size of Cuttings is a matter upon which 
there is a great difference of opinion. Cuttings of the Willow 
from one bud each and only an inch or two long up to those a 



38 



FARM WIND-BREAKS. 



foot or more in diameter and ten or twelve feet in length can 
generally be made to grow, but probably the most convenient 
size for general planting is one-half inch in diameter and 
twelve inches in length. They are generally tied in bunches 
of 100 or 200 each for convenience in handling, and care should 




Fig. 7 A bunch of Willow cuttings. 

be taken to keep all the butt ends one way to facilitate plant- 
ing. Very large cuttings are liable to decay in the center, and 
are not best to use, although they often make a very rapid 
growth. Poles of willows and poplars are sometimes laid in 
furrows where they will generally sprout wherever the bark 
is laid bare and often make good trees. 




Fig. 8. Planted cuttings, showing angle and depth at which 
to plant cuttings. 



In Planting Cuttings of ordinary size it is a good plan to 
have the soil loose, and then, after marking off the rows, the 
cuttings can be pushed into the land the proper depth. If not 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. - 39 

desirable to plow all the land, It may be loosened just where 
the rows are to come. Where a subsoil plow can be obtained, 
it can be made very useful for this purpose. 

Cuttings should be planted at an angle of about forty- 
flve degrees, leaving only one bud above the surface of 
the ground and the soil should be packed firmly around them. 
Those set in a slanting position settle with the soil and remain 
firm, while those set vertically may become loosened by the 
settling of the soil near them, leaving too much of them ex- 
posed above the surface, unless very great care is exercised 
in planting. The rows in the nursery should be about four feet 
apart, and the cuttings about six inches apart in the rows, 
though a much less distance may sometimes be sufficient. 
In packing the soil over the cuttings great pains should be 
taken to get it very solid around the lower end, and if the soil 
is very dry, the firmest pressure of the full weight of a man 
over the base of each cutting is not too great; in fact, when 
the soil is dry it cannot be made too firm over the cutting. 
When the soil is moist, however, only enough pressure should 
be used to bring the particles in close contact and close up the 
air spaces. 

The Cultivation of Cuttings should commence shortly after 
they are planted, and the top soil should be kept loosened to 
the depth of about three inches, which^ while not disturbing 
the solid soil around the base of the cuttings, prevents evapora- 
tion from the soil. 

Time of Planting Cuttings. Spring cuttings may be plant- 
ed at once where they are to grow. Autumn cuttings may be 
planted out at once, provided the land is not wet, but when 
planted at this season they should be covered with soil turned 
toward them with a plow. In the spring this covering should 
be raked off before the buds swell. The ground being warm in 
autumn often causes autumn-planted cuttings of some kinds to 
root before cold weather sets in, and if made up before the 
first of October they may thus score quite a gain over spring- 
planted cuttings. If not desirable to plant in the autumn, the 
bundles of cuttings may be kept over winter, buried in moist 
soil, preferably that which is somewhat sandy, where there is 
no standing water; but much care should be taken to keep 
them from drying out. To this end the bundles should be 
buried so as not to touch each other, and have two or three 



40 FARM WIND-BREAKS 

inches of soil packed in between tiiem. If they are kept in a 
cellar, moist sawdust will be found to be good material to keep 
them in. 

The amount of growth made by cuttings varies much, ac- 
cording t© the kind of plant, size of cuttings, soil, etc. The 
most of our willows will make a growth of three or four feet, 
on good soil, in one season, from ordinary cuttings. 

The Solar Pit. There are many trees that will not grow 
from cuttings unless they have their roots started a little be- 
fore planting. This is most easily accomplished by means of 
what is called the "solar pit," which owes its success to the 
fact that cuttings root first at the warmer end. It is made and 
used as follows: The bundles of cuttings are heeled in as 
recommended. In the spring they are taken out, and buried 




Fig. 9. The solar pit 
showing bundles of cuttings 
in place under glass. 

close together, with the butt ends uppermost, in a warm sunny 
spot, and covered with about six inches of soil. A hotbed 
frame, with sash, is then put over the spot, to warm the soil. 
Sometimes, instead of using sash, the soil over the cuttings fs 
covered with a foot or more of fermenting manure. In either 
case the soil is warmed, and the formation of roots encouraged. 
In using the solar pit the rooting process should not be carried 
so far as to permit roots to show plainly, as they are liable 
to be broken off in planting out; but the cuttings should be 
planted out as soon as they show signs of healing over on the 
butt end. This healing over process is called callousing, and in 
ma-iy plants necessarily precedes the formation of roots. 

LAYERS. 

Layers are portions of the branches of trees, shrubs or 
vines which are covered with earth without being separated 
from the parent plant and there take root and grow. These 
are cut off from the main plant in autumn or spring, and form 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 41 

new plants. Almost all trees a^d other plants can be rooted 
in this way, but, while some root very easily, others require 
so long a time to do so as to make it impracticable with them. 
The growing of trees from layers is seMom practiced in 
this country, but in some European nurseries it is a common 
means by which to increase special varieties of trees. For 
this purpose what is commonly known as mound layering i.s 
often used. This consists simply of drawing the soil up around 
the sprouts that come from the stump of a tree, covering the 
base of them about a foot in depth. It may be done at any 
time of the year after the sprouts are two or more feet high, 
but preferably in the spring. After the sprouts have become 
well rooted they may be removed in spring or autumn and 
treated the same as seedlings. Layering is sometimes prac- 
ticed in European forests to fill up vacancies, and a similar 
method is often employed in nurseries. 

GRAFTAGE. 

Graftage refers to the growing of one plant on the stem, 
root or branch of another plant. There are several forms of 
graftage, which are generally known as grafting, budding and 
inarching. It is a common practice to use graftage in the 
growing of the different varieties of fruit trees, and it is also 
used to some extent in the growing of some of the varieties 
of ornamental trees that cannot be grown from seed. Trees 
that are grown by any form of graftage are seldom as long- 
lived as those grown on their own roots, and these methods 
should be avoided when it is practicable to do so. These methods 
are not much used in common practice, and consequently 
are not discussed at length here. 

Inarching is a rather unusual way of growing plants. It 
works on the principle that when the growing stems, branches 
and roots of the same or closely allied plants are held closely 
together for some time they become united. Such unions of 
roots are frequently found in woodlands; in some cases the 
roots of the same trees, and in others the roots of different 
trees, become grown together. Occasionally also trees are 
found grown together by their branches or stems. Inarching 
is sometimes used for growing the Cutleaf Birch, in which 
case the sprouts from a stump of a Cutleaf Birch, or the twigs 



42 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

from a small tree laid on the ground, are tied to small Birch 
seedlings, which, have been grown in pots and plunged to 
their rims in the ground near the tree. In doing this the 
bark is removed for about two inches at the pcrtnt of contact 
of the twig and seedling, which are then tied firmly together. 
It should be done by the middle of June, but will often be suc- 
cessful if done even a month later. They should be kept to- 
gether until the leaves fall, and then the branches from the 
parent tree should be cut away, leaving the seedlings with 
the twigs grown fast to them. These should be carefully 
heeled-in over v/inter, and in the spring the seedlings should 
be cut off just above the union, so as to throw all their strength 
into the adopted twig of the Cutleaf Birch. This method may 
also be used to replace lost branches on trees or vines. 



CHAPTER IV. 

NURSERY PRACTICE. 

Nursery. This term is appliec to a plot of land u'^'ed for 
raising plants that are intended for planting elsewhere for 
their final growth. 

Soil and Cultivation. The best soil for a general nursery- 
is a deep, rich, reasonably level, retentive upland. It is cus- 
tomary to grow most of the nursery crops in rows, so that 
they may be readily cultivated. The land should be plowed 
deeply when the crop is planted, and the surface soil kept 
loose and fine during all the early part of the growing season, 
or until about the middle of July. If the land that has to be used 
for a nursery is rather shallow, it should be gradually deepen- 
ed by plowing from year to year, and, if inclined to dry out, 
the addition of large quantities of organic matter, together 
with constant cultivation, will do much to remedy these de- 
fects. 

The cultivation of a nursery or young forest plantation, 
provided the latter is planted in rows, should consist in keep- 
ing the land stirred to the depth of three inches, thus giving a 
dust blanket, which will protect from drouth. After the first 
of August much cutivation is likely to encourage a late au- 
tumn growth, which should be avoided; but a moderate quan- 
tity of buckwheat or oats may be sown then, and be allowed 
to grow the remainder of the season, to serve as a winter 
protection — to hold snows, and prevent the heaving out of the 
young seedlings by frost. 

GRADES OF NURSERY STOCK. 

Nursery stock of different kinds has come to be known by 
such convenient names as seedlings, transplants, street trees, 
forest-pulled seedlings, etc. 

Seedlings are young plants, grown from seed, that have 
never been transplanted, and are generally designated by 
their size or age. They form the cheapest class of nursery 
stock, and are used largely for starting windbreaks. 



44 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

Transplants are seedlings that have been at least once 
transplanted, and are designated by the size and number of 
times they have been moved. They are higher in price than 
seedlings, but with some kinds of trees they are much more 
likely to grow, and may be well worth the extra price. Ever- 
greens, especially pines, will seldom do well unless transplant- 
ed before being set in a permanent place. 

Street Trees include the trees of large size which are used 
for street, shade and ornamental purposes. To be of the best 
quality they should have been transplanted two or more times 
and have received some attention in the way of pruning so as 
to give them a good form. Such trees vary much in quality 
and price, but the best are necessarily rather expensive. 

Forest-pulled Deciduous Trees of small size can often be 
obtained at a very low price, and may be as desirable as those 
that are nursery grown. 

Forest-pulled Evergreen Seedlings may also be desirable. 




Fig-. 10. A bunch of Green Ash Seedlings. 



but too often they have poor roots, or have been so injured 
by poor handling that they are generally worthless. 

Forest-pulled Shade Trees sometimes grow very well, but 
they are always inferior to good nursery-grown trees. They 
are greatly improved by having their roots shortened two 
years before they are to be removed, and when so treated 
grow very well. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

Transplanting is Simply the Removal of the Plant. It 

may be to some permanent place, as a park, lawn, or street, 
or it may be done for the purpose of improving the root sys- 
tem, and to give the tree more room to grow. By shortening 
the long roots the root system is made more compact and bet- 
ter able to withstand subsequent removal. This may be done 
by transplanting, or by cutting around the tree with a spade 



NURSERY PRACTICE. 



45 



or tree digger. It is especially desirable to do this to trees 
that are not easily moved on account of their long branching" 
roots, such as the Birch, or to those that have tap roots, like 
the Oak and Walnut. It is on account of their having had 
their roots shortened so they can all be moved with the tree 
that nursery-grown trees are generally superior to others. 

In Transplanting it is Important to take up a sufficient 
amount of roots to support the plant, and as a rule the more 
roots the better the conditions for growth. Very long roots 
should be shortened unless the tree is removed to a perma- 
nent place, in which case all the good roots should be left on 
the tree. All bruised or broken roots should be cut off in eith- 
er case, and the top of the tree shortened to correspond. In 
transplanting trees they should be set one or two inches lower 
than they formerly stood, and the roots should be spread out 




Fig. 11. Extra good roots on a forest- 
grown Elmi, used as a street tree. 



in the holes without crowding. It is customary to plant many 
kinds of small trees in furrows made with a plow. 

Very Large Trees (those over six inches in diameter) are 
sometimes successfully planted in winter, by taking them up 
with a ball of earth. This is done by digging a trench around 
the tree, late in the autumn, deep enough to cut most of the 
roots, but far enough away from the tree to leave a large ball 
of earth. The trench is then filled in with a mulch of some 
kind, and when the ground is frozen the tree is moved, with 
the ball of earth attached, to the hole which has been pre- 
viously prepared and kept free from frost. 

After Trees Have Been Moved, or had their roots short- 



46 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

ened in some other way, they should generally not be tranfs- 
planted again for at least one or two years, during which 
time they will have overcome the injuries done to their root 
system. The time which should thus elapse will vary with 
the kind of tree, and also with the amount of injury done. 
Where the injury is severe a much longer time will be re- 
quired for recovery than where it is slight. 

Time to Transplant. Planting of trees should always be 
done when they are dormant, or just as they start into growth 
in the spring, which is generally from the middle to last of 
April. If for any reason it is desirable to risk the moving 
of trees late in the spring, after the leaves have started, they 
should be cut back severely, all the leaves removed, and great 
pains be taken to secure all the roots and to prevent their drying 
out. Very hardy deciduous trees, as the Elm, Cottonwood, 
Boxelder and Ash, can often be successfully moved in the fall, 
if the ground is moist at the time of removal, but great care 
must be taken to work the soil in very compactly between the 
roots, so that there will be no large air spaces among them. 
If the trees are large, it is a good plan to stake them, so they 
cannot be blown about by the wind. The more tender trees 
should not be transplanted in this section in autumn, and even 
the hardiest kinds should never be moved at this season unless 
the soil is moist. 

Transplanting Evergreens. When seedling evergreens are 
two years old they should be transplanted, and this should be 
done about once in three years afterwards, until they are 
moved to their permanent places. As evergreens are very 
sensitive to being moved, this requires more care than with 
most deciduous trees. The most important point is to not 
allow the roots to have even the appearance of being dry. 
They may be transplanted in the spring, as soon as the ground 
works easily and the roots have white tips, and they may be 
safely transplanted even up to the time that the new growth 
shows about an inch, but at this late time more care must be 
taken in doing the work than when it is done earler. Ever- 
greens can sometimes be moved successfully in August, or 
even in the autumn, if they are to be carried only a short 
distance and the conditions of the weather and land are favor- 
able; but this is not a time for general planting, and it is 
seldom advisable to do it at this season. 



NURSERY PRACTICE. 47 

The Very General Error is Current that June is the best 
time to plant out evergreens. They may be transplanted at 
this season successfully if the conditions are just right in every 
particular, but they are much more liable to failure than when 
*he work is done earlier in the season. At whatever time of 
the year evergreens are to be moved, the work should be done 
in such a manner as to protect the roots from having even the 
appearance of being dry, for if dried ever so little the prob- 
abilities of their living are much lessened. The kind of treat- 
ment that would be considered all right for apple trees might 
be ^atal to evergreens, as they are much more susceptible to 
injury from drying. 

In addition to the above precautions to be taken when mov- 
ing evergreens, it is desirable to shorten back the limbs about 
one-third, to compensate for the loss of roots. Of course this 
shortening should not be done in such a way as to disfigure the 
tree, but, when the roots are in any way severely mutilated, the 
whole top makes more of a draft on them for moisture than the 
roots can supply. This pruning is not so necessary in the case 
of young seedling evergreens or nursery-grown trees that have 
been recently transplanted, for when they are moved their root 
systems are not seriously injured. 

Very Small Evergreens and Other Small Plants are 
often set in trenches made with a spade, as shown in figure 12. 
For this method the soil must be loose, and yet sufficiently com- 
pact so that it can be cut with a spade and not crumble before 
the plants can be set out. The beds are made about six feet 
wide, and a board of this length and six inches wide should be 
used. The soil is thrown out with a spade (A) to the depth of 
about six inches, but no wider than necessary to just take in the 
roots. The plants are then placed in position by hand, and a 
little soil pushed against them to hold them in place. (B) The 
trench is then half filled and the soil firmly compacted by the 
feet. The remainder of the soil is then put in and leveled otl, 
the board is changed to the other side of the row first planted 
and the planting is continued in the same way. (C and D) 
Such close planting as this is only desirable when it is intend- 
ed to give special care to the plants, as by shading or watering. 
Plants should not remain more than two or three years in so 
close a bed before they are transplanted. When it is desirable 



48 



FARM WIND-BREAKS. 



to set out small seedlings in rows, instead of beds, a tight line 
may be used in place of the board. 

Heeling in. This term is applied to the temporary cover- 
ing of the roots of trees with earth to keep them from drying 
out aftei' they are dug or are received from the nursery and 
until they are planted. If they are to be kept for only a few 
days, comparatively little care is needed in covering; but if 
they are to be kept for several weeks, or over winter, especially 
if the weather is dry. great care must be taken to work the fine 
soil in among the roots and to pack it solid. A good way «f 
doing this is as follows: Select a dry, mellow piece of ground, 
and dig a trench just large enough to take in the roots of the 
trees when laid close together in a single row. Place the trees 




Fig. 12. Successive steps in planting young evergreen or 
other very small seedlings, (a) Board in place and trench partly 
opened, (ta) Seedlings in place and partly covered, (c) New 
trench partly opened, (d) New trench with seedlings in place. 



or seedlings in this trench, in an upright position, a few at a 
time, and cover the roots firmly and deeply with soil taken 
from close in front of the first trench, thus making a trench for 
the next row. In this section, if Maples, Cherries and other 
trees not of the greatest hardiness are to remain heeled in all 
winter, it is a good plan to bend the tops down and cover with 
earth. This is only necessary for winter protection. The 
neglect to properly heel in nursery stock, as soon as it is 
received is undoubtedly a frequent cause of failure. 

When nursery stock consisting oi: common tree seed- 
lings, other than evergreen seedlings, are to be planted out in 
a few days, they may be unpacked and piled up in a moist 
cellar or even in a tight shed, provided they are moistened a lit- 



NURSERY PRACTICE. 



49 



tie from time to time as reseeded. Temporarily, too, they 
could be safely left in the bundles and be covered with moist 
hay or straw to keep out the wind, but this can most safely be 
done under cover somewhere. 

Trees and cuttings will sometimes get so dry in shipment 
that the bark shrivels. In such cases the best treatment is to 
bury them entirely for a few days, which will often enable 
them to recover. Soaking in water will answer the same pur- 
pose, but unless very carefully done is likely to injure the 
wood. 

The Packing of Nursery Stock is a matter that calls for 
much experience to adapt it to the various kinds of nursery 
stock shipped and to the method of transportation. 

Practically all the nursery stock that is used in forest plant- 







Fig: 13. Heeling-in. Various stages of the operation: row of 
trees with roots covered; row bent down and the tops covered. 



ting in this country is best shipped when dormant. It will 
generally be found that the box is the safest package to use 
in the handling of it but sometimes it may be convenient to 
ship in bales. Small packages may be sent in bundles or in 
t)Oxes by mail, and for this purpose, they can best be packed 
in clean sphagnum moss wrapped with oil paper and after- 
.ward v/ith brown paper. Packages that are to go by express 
do not require as careful packing as those that are to go 
by freight, as they are not liable to be neglected. In ship- 
ping by freight, it is important to pack with exceeding care 
so that the goods will be safe even if considerably delayed. 



50 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

Puddling. All dormant nursery stock should have the 
roots "puddled" before being shipped. This operation con- 
sists in dipping the roots of the trees into a thin clay mud. A 
convenient way to do this is to dig a small deep hole in which 
the mud is prepared. Such treatment is quite a protection to 
the roots against drouth. 

The Best Material in which to pack nursery stock is prob- 
ably moist (not wet) sphagnum moss, but as this is often ex- 
pensive and out of the question in many localities, peat, ex- 
celsior or wet chaff will be found to be good substitutes. Of 
late years, excelsior has been growing in favor with our best 
nurserymen as packing material. The material used for this 
purpose is the fine shavings such as is generally wasted at 
shingle mills. Before using, it should be thoroughly water 
soaked. It has the advantage of not heating and yet retain- 
ing moisture for a long time if covered up. 

Nursery Stock in Transit is liable to several injuries. 
One of the most common is for it to become too dry and in 
this way lose its vitality. Yet it often happens in shipping 
nursery stock that is to be several weeks in transit that it 
is best to pack it so dry that the plants will perhaps shrivel 
a little, because if packed moist, they will often decay. When 
moss is to be used for packages that are liable to be a month 
or more on the way, it should be thoroughly dried so that 
there will be little moisture apparent in handling it. In such 
cases the boxes should be thoroughly lined with paper before 
they are packed. Paper lining for boxes is also very desir- 
able when nursery stock is to be shipped during excessively 
cold weather as it aids greatly in keeping out frost. 

In shipping nursery stock in warm weather, it is often 
desirable in the case of evergreens to pack the roots in moist 
moss and leave the tops exposed, shipping the box without 
any cover, or if covered at all, using only burlap or similar 
material. In packing such a box, it is a good plan to remove 
one end and pack in alternate layers of packing material and 
plants and when the box is full, nail on the end. In this way, 
the plants can be put in very solid. 

It is Customary to Have Seedlings tied in bunches of 
about 100 each when they are shipped, and whenever small 
stock is shipped with large stock, it should be in a separate 
bundle. It is seldom necessary or desirable to put packing 



NURSERY PRACTICE. 51 

material about the tops but it should be confined to the roots 
and the center of the bundles and the tops should be left 
somewhat free so they will not heat. In packing nursery- 
stock in this way it may sometimes be desirable to carefully 
nail cleats across the box after the stock has been put in to 
hold it in place and prevent its shifting about in transit. 
Sometimes it may be desirable to ventilate the cases in which 
they are packed. 

In Packing a Bundle, great care should be taken that after 
the plants are tied together the packing material is well 
worked in between and around the roots so as to exclude a 
free circulation of air about them. After this has been done, 
and the package well tied together, it should be covered about 
the roots with more packing material and wrapped with bur- 
lap and well sewed on. The tops should be protected with 
burlap, straw or grass. 

Some Important Things to Remember in handling nur- 
sery stock: 

1 — If the roots of trees are frozen out of the ground and 
thawed again in contact with the air, they will probably die. 

2 — If the frozen roots of hardy plants are well buried in 
the ground before thawing at all, they will be uninjured. 

3 — Deciduous trees that are received in a shrivelled con- 
dition may often be revived by burying them, tops and all, 
in earth for a few days. 

4 — Manure should never be placed in contact with the 
roots of trees when they are set, but good black soil should 
be preferably used for this purpose. 

5 — If trees are watered, it is important to keep the soil 
around them cultivated or covered with a good mulch, other- 
v/ise the surface will bake hard and will lose moisture very 
fast. 

6 — Small thrifty trees are very much to be preferred for 
transplanting purposes to those that are large, as the latter 
are liable to be checked in their growth by being moved. 

7 — The roots of coniferous Evergreens should not be al- 
lowed to have even the appearance of dryness, as a very little 
drying will prevent their growing. 

8 — Spring is the best time to move all kinds of nursery 
stock and as a rule plants do best when transplanted before 
the buds start. 



52 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

9 — Autumn is a good time for transplanting our hardiest 
deciduous trees, providing that the soil conditions are favor- 
able, but it is not a good time to move coniferous Evergreens. 

10 — Coniferous Evergreens may be safely moved about the 
first of August after they have ripened up the first growth 
of the season, if moved carefully with a ball of earth, but 
when handled at this time they require much careful atten- 
tion. 

PRUNING. 

Pruning should be avoided as much as possible, and yet 
be done sufficiently to secure the effect desired. If it is begun 
early in the life of a tree no large branches need ever be re- 
moved, the most desirable pruning being the directing of the 
growth by pinching off the buds that would develop into un- 
desirable branches; but this is impracticable on a large scale, 
and for this reason, in ordinary practice, it is often necessary 
to do more extensive pruning. 

The Purpose in Pruning Trees is to give them forms 
that are desirable for the purpose intended. For example, a 
tree for the lawn or windbreak may be most desirable when 
covered with branches even down to the ground, while street 
trees should have a trunk free from branches for eight or ten 
feet from the ground. Many of the evergreens, and some 
other trees used for ornament, naturally take on so regular 
and desirable a form that it is not necessary .to prune them, 
except perhaps to pinch or cut off an extra leading shoot that 
is likely to make a forked top, while the White Elm, Soft 
Maple, and others need occasional pruning to remove or short- 
en awkward branches, at least while the tree is young and 
growing rapidly. 

The Proper Time for Pruning is determined by the effect 
of the operation upon the health of the tree. Dead branches 
may be safely removed at any season. The removal of live 
branches during the growing season lessens the leaf surface, 
and hence checks growth. Pruning when the tree is dormant 
results in a more vigorous growth in the remaining branches. 
Wounds made by pruning jus; as trees are starting into 
growth do not heal over as readily as those made earlier in 
the spring, or during the period ^r active growth in June. 



NURSERY PRACTICE. 



53 



Wounds made in autumn or early winter generally heal over 
well, but are more likely to cause bad injuries than if made at 
the close of the winter. These considerations and practical ex- 
perience have brought ahout the following conclusions as to 
the best time for pruning: 

Large Branches are Most Safely Removed during the 
latter part of winter, before growth starts. Small branches 
may be safely removed at this time, or during the growing 
season, preferably about the middle of June; but such very 
hardy trees as the Elm, Ash, Boxelder, White Willow and 
Cottonwood may be safely pruned at any time in autumn, win- 
ter or spring, while the Mountain Ash, Apple, Plum and Wild 
Cherry are liable to injury if pruned at any but the most 
favorable seasons, 




Fig. 14. Showing the proper place to make the cut in pruning. 

A wound made on the dotted line A-B wlill be promptly healed. 

One made on the line C-D or E-F will not. In figure 14 the lower 

branch was cut off too far from the trunk. (After Goff.) 



Among the Directions to be Followed in Good Pruning are 
the following: 

(1) Do not cut off a single branch unless you have a good 
idea of what you wish to accomplish and the probable effect of 
so doing on the tree; better not prune at all than to do it 
without considering the consequences. 

(2) Avoid doing very much pruning at one time, especially 
on small street trees, which, if they have all their branches re- 
moved from the trunks to their final height, are likely to make 
too much growth at the top for the trunk to support well in high 
winds. A better way is to remove a part of the lower branches 
and shorten back in summer those that are to be removed 
later; by such treatment a large part of the strength of the 



54 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

tree goes into the top without increasing the size of the lower 
branches, which may be removed in a year or two without 
injury to the tree. 

(3) After pruning paint the wounds with good white lead 
paint, to keep the wood from decaying and the injuries from 
thus becoming permanent. This is not so necessary on very 
hardy trees as on those that are somewhat tender. 

(4) Where branches rub together it is generally best to 
remove one of them. 

(5) Where bad crotches are being formed by the devel- 
opment of two leaders, severely check the growth of one of 
them by shortening it, thus throwing more sap into the other 
and making it the leading shoot. 

(6) Prevent the formation of long side branches by short- 
ening those that are liable to become too long. This is espe- 




Fig. 15. Showing how to make the cut in pruning large branches. 
The upper cut, all made from above, permits the branch to split 
down. The left cut, first made partly from below, prevents split- 
ting down. After Goff.) 

cially desirable with the Soft Maple, which has a tendency to 
form long branches that are likely to break off unless occa- 
sionally pruned, 

(7) Where trees have lost their leaders, prune so as to 
develop one of the side branches into a leading shoot. This 
the tree always attempts to do itself, but a little judicious 
pruning will greatly aid it. 

(8) Every species of tree and shrub has its own natural 
form, and in pruning do not try to make all of them of one 
shape. Study the natural form of each kind of tree, and en- 
courage the development of this form. 



NURSERY PRACTICE. 55 

(9) When trees are full of frost the wood cracks very 
easily; therefore do not prune in very cold weather, for bad 
wounds may then be easily formed. 

Treatment of Crooked Trees. It is common to have some 
trees in the nursery that are of vigorous, healthy growth, but 
so crooked as to be nearly worthless. The proper treatment 
for most of our shade trees when in this condition in the nurs- 
ery, if anything is to be made of them, is to cut them off at 
the surface of the ground, early in the spring, and then select 
one of the good, strong sprouts that come from the roots of 
each tree, train it into a straight stem, and cut away the 
others. Treated in this way well-formed trees may soon be 
grown. Such treatment may also be desirable with small 
street trees that have their stems hopelessly injured. How- 
ever, trees that to the novice may seem hopelessly crooked 
may only have crooks in them that will be outgrown in a 
few years. 

STREET TREES. 

Success with Street Trees is perhaps more dependent on 
good soil about the roots than on any other one factor. If the 
land is so very sandy or gravelly as to be subject to drouth, at 
least two cubic yards (two full two-horse loads) should be 
taken from where each tree is to be planted and the same 
amount of good clay or loam substituted for it. If in subse- 
quent years the trees outgrow the limits of the material sup- 
plied, more of it should be added, and if this consists largely 
of stable manure, so much the better, provided it does not come 
into contact with the roots of the trees. It is important to do 
this work thoroughly, for one tree well planted is better than 
a dozen poorly set out. 

Kinds of Trees. The best trees for street planting in this 
section are the White Elm, Hackberry, Green Ash, Basswood, 
Boxelder and Soft Maple. All of these trees do well in good 
soil, and with the exception of the Soft Maple they all do well 
in rather inferior land. Evergreens may sometimes be used to 
advantage along narrow drives, but they are seldom desirable 
as street trees. The trees planted should be about two to 
four inches in diameter near the ground, eight or ten feet high, 
and of thrifty growth. Much larger trees are sometimes set 
out, but it is not advisable, as a rule, to plant those that are 



56 



FARM WIND-BREAKS. 



over four inches in diameter. Smaller trees are often planted 
and do well, if properly cared for, but need more attention in 
directing their growth than those that are larger. But small, 
thrifty trees are much better for street planting than large 
stunted trees. In all cases it is more important to have plenty 
of good roots than a large top, as a top can soon be developed 
if the roots are good. 

Distance Apart. The distance between trees depends on 
the kind planted and the quality of the land. On rich land in 




Fig. 16. Soft 
Miaiple not pruned 
since it was planted 
out. Liable to break 
in its crotches at any 
time. A bad form. 



Fig. 17. Soft 
Maple once pruned 
showing close head 
that is not liable to 
break down. A good- 
form. 



Fig. 18. Soft 
Maple several times 
pruned preserving a 
main central axis. 
A good form. 



this section the trees named should be put forty feet apart, 
in fairly good soil about thirty feet, and in poor soil twenty 
feet apart. This gives sufficient room for good development, 
but where a quick effect is wanted it is a good plan to set the 
trees much thicker than this, and use Cottonwood, Willow or 
similar fast-growing treesr to alternate with one of the kinds 
named as desirable, with the expectation of cutting out the less 
valuable when it shall have commenced to crowd the more 
desirable kinds. 

Planting. Provided the soil is in the proper condition, 
the next consideration is the proper planting of the tree. The 
preparation for this should consist in digging a hole of suffi- 
cient size to take in the roots without crowding. If the sub- 
soil is very solid clay, it should be thoroughly loosened up. 



NURSERY PRACTICE. 



57 



and where practicable it is a good plan to dig a trench to the 
loose soil over a water pipe or sewer, for by this means the 
roots get into loose soil, and drainage is secure, which is often 
much needed on such land. Sometimes a very stiff hardpan 
can be broken up to advantage by exploding a small dynamite 
cartridge in a deep hole made with a crowbar. 

Before Setting the tree, it should have all broken and dead 
roots cut off. It should then be set an inch or two deeper 
than it had been growing, the discoloration above the roots in- 
dicating the depth at which it had stood. If, however, good 
drainage cannot be secured, the tree can be planted less deep- 




Fig. 19. Elm 
street tree properly 
trimmed for planting 
out. 

ly, and then have a mound made around it. Fill in about the 
roots slowly, being careful (should the tree have a great num- 
ber of fibrous roots) to work the earth well in among them and 
under the butt of the tree. Fine soil, free from large stones, 
should be used for this purpose. Pack the soil in firmly, if 
reasonably dry, with the heels, or, better still, with a rammer, 
making it as solid as possible around the roots. The object 



58 



FARM WIND-BREAKS. 



in doing this is to leave no air spaces about them. It is not a 
good plan to put water into the hole before the tree is set, 
but it may be put in when the roots are just covered and 
allowed to soak away before the remaining soil is put in. As 
a rule, however, little is gained by watering if the trees have 
not leafed out and the moist soil is packed firmly around the 
roots. Water is most needed after growth starts. 

Mulching. Newly planted street trees are much helped by 
a mulch of straw, hay or well-rotted manure. The latter 's 
best, as it also furnishes plant food, but hot manure is liable 




Fig. 20. Elm -tree that has been planted five years and was 
pruned to a bare pole when set out. 



to injure the trunk if piled against it. These materials pre- 
vent the soil from drying out, and this is especially beneficial 
if the trees are artificially watered. 

Watering should be done thoroughly or not at all. One 
good watering should keep the ground moist for two or three 
weeks, in the driest weather we have, if the land is heavily 
mulched when the water is applied. For a good watering in a 
dry time about one barrel of water should be given to each 
street or lawn tree. A hollow should be made around the tree 



NURSERY PRACTICE. 59 

and covered with mulch before the water is applied. This 
same amount of water might be applied at the rate of one or 
two pailfuls a day, and not be of the least benefit to the tree, 
if applied to the bare surface of the ground. 

The Pruning of Street Trees at the time they are set 
out is an important matter. If the trees are very tall and slen- 
der, it is a good plan to cut them off at about ten feet from the 
ground, and trim off all side branches, as shown in figure 19. 
For trees that have been pulled from the woods this is gener- 
ally the best treatment, while for nursery-grown trees that 
have had plenty of room, to develop a good top it may some- 
times be best to trim so as to leave part of the top. If the 
trees are trimmed to bare poles before planting, some little 
pruning will be required each season for a number of years to 
develop good tops, while if they had well formed tops in the 
nursery and were shortened back at planting time much less 
attention will be necessary. 

In a row of Elms or other trees there will often be found 
peculiar individual shapes. Some of the trees will take on 
desirable forms, while others will be spreading and awkward, 
and perhaps have a tendency to crack in the branches. In 
some cases a little extra pruning will bring such unfortunates 
into shape, but often they are incorrigible, and are best re- 
placed by other trees with better forms. 

Protection should always be given street trees as soon as 
they are set out, and this should consist of something that will 
protect them from sun-scald, gnawing of horses and whittling 
by thoughtless boys. A good temporary cover is afforded by 
wrapping the trunk with gunny sacking or similar material, 
but a more desirable protection is afforded by a slatted wooden 
frame or box for each tree. 



CHAPTER V. 
TREE PROTECTION— INJURIES TO TREES. 

The causes of injury to tree growth are many and various, 
some affecting principally the cultivated trees in windbreaks 
and shelterbelts, and others affecting the forest plantations and 
large areas of timber. Some injure or destroy the trees or 
tree seeds, and others do damage to the land on which they 
grow. 

Saw-FMes and Tent-Caterpillars. At present perhaps the 
most serious injuries to cultivated trees in this section result 




Fig. 21. White Willow windbreak seriously injured by suc- 
cessive attacks of saw-fly larvae. A common source of injury to 
willows. 



from the neglect to take precautions against leaf-eating insects, 
such as saw-flies and tent-caterpillars. These injuries may be 
largely prevented by the use of Paris Green, in a liquid form, 
applied by means of a force pump, using the solutions from a 



INJURIES TO TREES. 61 

barrel carried in a wagon or^on a stone boat. An ordinary spray- 
ing nozzle should be used, with a sufficient length of hose 
to reach up into the tree. In order to reach the tops of the 
trees it may be necessary to have a raised platform on the 
wagon and to attach the nozzle to the end of a long bamboo 
pole. In most prairie groves this is practicable, but with very 
high trees it is very difficult if not entirely impracticable. 

Borers and Lice. These sometimes cause serious injury, 
but it is seldom practicable to combat them successfully. It is 
generally better to avoid them by planting the kinds that are 
least subject to injury from their attacks. Where lice are in- 
jurious, kerosene emulsion or strong tobacco water are good 
remedies. In the case of small trees that can be easily in- 
closed in a tent, the best remedy is tobacco smoke. 

Mice and Rabbits. Seedlings and small trees of some 
kinds are liable to injury from rodents, such as mice and rab- 
bits, which gnaw the bark near the surface of the ground, and 
perhaps girdle the tree. They are most likely to do this when 
the ground is covered with snow, for this furnishes them with 
a protection under which they can do their mischief without 
fear of being molested. In the case of small seedlings such 
injuries may be largely prevented by plowing a furrow or set- 
ting boards on edge around the seed bed. If, after each snow- 
fall, the snow is trodden down so as to make a solid path 
between the seedlings and the grass or woodland whence the 
mice come, they will be kept out, as they will not try to work 
through the solid snow. Seedlings that are badly girdled in 
winter should be cut off at the surface of the ground, to encour- 
age sprouts from the roots. To prevent the gnawing of larger 
trees, paint the trunk with a cement or lime wash made rather 
thick and containing Paris Green in the proportion of one 
tablespoonful of Paris Green to a pailful of the wash. If skim 
milk is used in mixing the wash, instead of water, the material 
sticks better. Trees that are gnawed badly may often be 
saved by coating the injured surface with grafting wax, blue 
clay, or other similar material, soon after the damage is done, 
so as to prevent the seasoning of the wood, and thus give it 
a chance to heal over. Where the injury is close to the ground 
it should be covered with earth. 

The Pocket Gopher. Trees are sometimes injured by 
pocket gophers eating the roots. Trapping or poisoning may 



62 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

be resorted to, or bisulphide of carbon may be used to suffo- 
cate tliem in their burrows. 

Birds. Most of our birds are helpful in various ways, such 
as distributing seeds and in destroying injurious insects, and 
such small injurious animals as mice and gophers. They also 
add to the beauty of our woods and fields, and to our pleasure 
and recreation. But some kinds are provokingly injurious by 
eating the seeds we wish to gather, or by digging up newly- 
sown seeds. Where they are troublesome on seed beds, they 
may be kept away by covering the bed with wire netting, 
which will also serve to keep away other animals. If only 
birds are troublesome, mosquito netting may be used, or the 
seeds may be given a light coating of red lead and dried in 
land plaster or flour before sowing. 

The sap-sucker does considerable injury to some trees by 
making holes in the bark for the purpose of securing insects 
which go there to feed on the sap. They are sometimes so 
very injurious that it is necessary to destroy them. The 
Apple, Boxelder, Maple, and most other trees, are subject to 
their injuries. 

Cattle. The pasturing of cows, horses, sheep and other 
animals in the woodlands is generally a poor practice, as these 
animals browse off many of the young seedlings, especially 
those of deciduous trees, such as the Oak, Basswood, Cherry 
and others, though they seldom eat coniferous trees. They also 
compact the ground, and destroy many small seedlings by their 
continued tramping, especially when present in large numbers. 
This is especially true of sheep on the Western forest reserves. 
Deer, moose, elk and other similar animals are likewise in- 
jurious in forests and when abundant may do much damage, 
though on account of their comparatively small number they 
do but slight injury. 

Severe Winters. These may injure many kinds of young 
seedlings, which when two or three years old will be perfectly 
hardy. Seedlings of such kinds should be dug at the end of 
the first season's growth, and be heeled in over winter, or pro- 
tected by a mulch or earth covering in winter. 

Alternate Freezing and Thawing. Seedlings are often 
thi*own out of the ground by alternate freezing and thawing, 
and in this way have their roots broken. This is most likely 
to happen where the ground is bare; if covered with leaves or 



INJURIES TO TREES. 



63 



grass, or shaded in other ways, this seldom happens. The best 
preventive is to mulch the surface soil with leaves or other 
similar material, but as mice generally like to live in such 
places poison should be used. It should be placed under the 
mulch, in tin cans laid on their sides, so they may be readily 
found in spring and will not be liable to poison the birds. 
When seedlings are thrown out of the ground by frost they 
should be pushed back and have the earth pressed against 
them as soon as the ground is thawed in the spring. 




Fig. 22, Heaving out by Frost, (a) Tree in natural position, 
(b) Drawn up by alternate freezing and thawing. 



Late Spring Frosts are common in the low lands of this 
section. They injure the trees by killing the new spring 
growth after it lias started several inches. A large number of 
trees are seriously injured in this way, and are classed as 
frost tender trees, and those that are not liable to this injury 



64 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

are termed frost hardy trees. Among conifers the spruces 
and balsams are much injured by late spring frosts, while our 
pines and the Tamarack, Red Cedar and Arborvitae are seldom 
if ever injured in this way. Deciduous trees recover from such 
injuries more quickly than evergreens. Among the deciduous 
trees most liable to injury from this cause are the Ash, Mul- 
berry, Oak, Maple, Basswood, Black Walnut, Butternut and 
Boxelder, though they do not all suffer in the same degree. 
Among those that are not sensitive to late frosts are the Elm, 
Willow, Poplar, Birch, Hackberry, Wild Black Cherry and 
Mountain Ash. 

On account of this liability to injury from late frosts, it is 
customary to study the probability of damage from this cause 
in given locations, and to plant accordingly. It will often be 
found that in certain low spots there is greater liability to late 
frosts, while there is very little injury from this cause on the 
higher lands. It is customary among European foresters to 
protect young seedlings of some kinds, particularly Beech, from 
late frosts until they get up off the ground. For this purpose 
Birch twenty or more feet high are encouraged at intervals of 
thirty or forty feet, and the frost tender plants, such as Beech 
and Spruce, are set out between. The result of this arrange- 
ment is that the Birch, which is frost hardy, quite successfully 
protects the frost tender trees below it. After the frost tender 
trees are well off the ground, as ten or fifteen feet high, there 
is comparatively little danger from this source of injury, and 
the Birch is removed. 

Sleet Storms occasionally do much damage by breaking 
the limbs. Little can be done to relieve the trees, but preven- 
tive measures may be taken. If no large crotches are allowed 
to form in trees, and growth kept as near as possible to one 
central shaft, or the longer branches shortened so that they will 
not exert too great a leverage, the losses may be reduced to a 
minimum. Trees having brittle wood or weak crotches, as the 
Soft Maple, are much more liable to this injury than those with 
tough wood, as the willows, oaks and elms, and need more 
pruning on this account. Evergreens are likely to be broken 
by heavy snows that freeze on the leaves. This may be pre- 
vented on lawn and shade trees by shaking the snow off from 
them before it freezes. 

Frost Cracks are a rather infrequent injury caused by the 



INJURIES TO TREES. 



65 



cracking of trees from center to outside, due to uneven con- 
traction in very cold weather. It is generally accompanied by 
a loud report. Such cracks are often eight or ten feet long, 
and occasionally longer. They generally close up again when 
the wood thaws out, and during the following summer grow 
over, only to burst open again the next winter. This alternate 
bursting open and growing over may continue for many years, 
until very conspicuous and peculiar wounds are formed. In 




Fig. 23. 



Trees heavily loadea witli ice after a sleet' storm. 



such cracks insects and rot-producing fungi find favorable lodg- 
ing places, and as a result trees are seriously injured, and are- 
liable to decay in the trunk. There are no practical remedies 
for such injuries. 

Wind. Injuries from wind are common where thinning is 
done to a great extent at one time about shallow rooted trees, 
such as Spruce growing on moist soil. These injuries can be 
avoided only by thinning gradually. In many such cases, on 



66 



FARM WIND-BREAKS. 



limBer lands, thinning is impracticable, and it is then best to 
cut all the merchantable timber, for if left it is sure to be 
blown down. 

On our prairies, where the soil is light and easily moved 
by the wind. It is not uncommon to have young seedling trees 
seriously injured by the blowing away of the soil around the 




Fig. 24. Old frost cracks in Sugar Maple. 



roots, which often leaves them uncovered for three or more 
inches. This injury usually takes place in the spring, and 
may be almost entirely prevented by seeding the land to oats 
about the middle of July, at the time of the last cultivation. 



INJURIES TO TREES. 



67 



V 

Sown at this season the oats form a good sod that serves to 
hold the soil in place until spring, when it is easily broken up 
by cultivation, but even then the roots prevent the blowing 
away or the soil. Occasional strips of grass are also a pre- 
ventive of this injury, or mulching may be resorted to. 

Snow Crust. The settling of a snow crust that has formed 
on the top of deep snow drifts may cause injury to young trees 
by stripping off their branches and breaking the stems. It 





Fig. 25. Trunk 
of Soft Maple badly 
sun-scalded. 



• Fig. 26. Section of Trunk 
of Sun-scalded Basswood, show- 
ing dead bark and amount of 
wood decayed. The top and 
roots of the tree from which 
this section was cut were per- 
fectly healthy at the time when 
the trunk broke off at the sun- 
scald. 



may be prevented by breaking up the crust or by thinly scat- 
tering over the snow some sand, ashes or other material that 
will absorb the sun's heat and cause the crust to melt before 
the snow underneath melts. This injury seldom occurs except 
under drifts, and a little good judgment in selecting the loca- 



68 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 

tion and arranging the windbreak so as to prevent drifts may 
obviate this source of injury. 

Drouth. Injuries from drouth may be prevented to a great 
extent by constant cultivation, but where this cannot be done 
mulching is a good substitute. Attention to thinning at the 
proper time so as not to get the soil filled with roots will also 
help to prevent injury from drouth. Willow windbreaks can 
be grown without any cultivation, after being once well estab- 
lished, in the driest portion of Minnesota, if they are kept 
mulched with straw or litter for six feet on each side. Mulch- 
ing also prevents injury from severe freezing of the roots. 

Sun-scald. Nearly all of our cultivated trees may be in- 
jured by sun-scald. This occurs, almost without exception, on 
the southwest side of unprotected trees of Hard and Soft Ma- 
ple, Basswood, Boxelder, Black Walnut, etc. Oaks and all 
other trees are occasionally affected. It never occurs when 
the trees are sufficiently close together to shade their trunks, 
and for this reason the growth of shrubs and low branching 
trees shpuld be encouraged on the south and west sides of 
groves where they do not crowd the principal kinds. Street 
trees liable to this injury may be protected by burlap sacking, 
straw or other similar material. When injuries from sun-scald 
occur, the loose bark should be cut off down to the live growth 
and the wood coated with paint, to prevent its seasoning, or 
the wound wrapped in cloth. Trees inclined to the northeast 
are most liable to sun-scald, because the rays of the sun 
strike the trunk more nearly perpendicular. 

Broken Branches and Decay. Large wounds are some- 
times formed by the breaking down of a branch, or by decay, 
which may have started in a wound made by pruning. In such 
cases the broken and decayed wood should be cleared away, 
and the exposed surfaces treated with a very heavy coat of 
white lead paint, grafting wax, or other material that will keep 
out water and disease. If the wound is very large, or forms a 
hole in which water is likely to stand, it should be cleaned and 
painted as recommended, and then covered with a sheet of 
zinc, carefully tacked on, and the joints closed with grafting 
wax to keep out water. 

Fungus Diseases are quite common sources of injury to 
trees of all kinds, including those of our forests. They attack 
the foliage, trunk and roots. Occasionally very serious losses 



INJURIES TO TREES. 69 

occur here from those that cause the trunks to rot. They are 
generally most numerous in sections where there is not much 
of a circulation of air. This subject is tog large for a detailed 
account of any of them here, and only one is referred to, which, 
although not very common, is occasionally quite injurious. 
This is known as the toadstool root fungus, Agaricus melleus. 
This fungus lives upon the roots of pines, spruces, firs, etc., 
and occasionally kills them. At one stage of its growth it lives 
on the decaying wood of oaks and similar trees. 



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